The Effect of Communication Theories in Business Introduction

The effect of communication theories in business Introduction Communication has existed since the beginning of human beings, but people didn’t pay attention to it until the 20th century, especially into the 21st century along with the communication technologies development. Nowadays, there have many communication theories. Among of these theories, interpersonal communication (IC) and organizational communication (OC) are the most commonly-used theories applied in business to help us resolve problems. IC, as a kind of device that organizers usually use to communicate with their employees, more emphasizes individuals interacting face-to-face than OC. It can help us understand how and why people think and behave. However, IC is hardly defined in its own area of study, yet often occurs within other environment like organizations (â€Å"Interpersonal communication,† In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 2011). OC, as a subfield of communication, mainly looks at human communication within or among organizations, which is the most basic and central part in business management (Simon, 1998). It relates to the achievement of organizational goals and the formation of organizational culture. Meanwhile, OC is also the most common management behavior which is carried out under certain circumstance and is influenced by organizational culture. The behavior culture of enterprises determines the behavior characteristics and communication ways and styles of employees; the material culture determines the condition of communication technology, communication mediums and channels of companies (â€Å"Organizational Communication†, In Baidu, The Free Encyclopedia, 2011 ). Interpersonal Communication and Organizational Communication in Business In the process of actual application in business, OC is often considered as one field of IC and IC as one means of OC on the contrary. These two communication theories seemingly serve different objects, people versus organizations. Actually, individuals are the common objects of communication. Communication scholars define OC different from IC, only because it always exists in an organization, and sometimes represents one department or one class. So we could see both of them usually work together in one organization. For example, the enterprise culture of General Electric (GE) Company highlights the â€Å"people-oriented† business philosophy. In GE Company, employees are given enough concern and respect, and are encouraged to express their opinions and display their creativity directly. This kind of outspoken communication style of GE makes managers gain more new ideas and opinions to impel company developing. Moreover, for the management coordination, the ex-CEO of GE, Jack Welch, came up with â€Å"boundaryless concept† in the field of organizational communication. GE Company would clear obstacles among all departments like engineering, production and marketing departments and make information totally transparent and free accessible. Under the guidance of such communication theories, GE could use internal information with the most efficiency and achieve the resources sharing on the largest extent (In Scientology Volunteer Minister, 2009). In this case, we hardly tell which communication theory is applied in certain part, yet we easily find the two theories complement and serve each other. The application of communication theories in organization Use to cope with internal problems Communication, as one kind of enterprises culture, has attracted more attention of companies and is treated as the key point of strategic management by leadership. The â€Å"Three Withouts† phenomenon Mr. Yu (2008) came up with in one speech, as the following, is the most direct and understandable explanation of the problems existed in organizations. Lack of Communication with Superiors. Generally speaking, there are many things managers have to think about so that they cannot communicate with employees efficiently in time (Shiwei Yu, 2008). At this time employees are supposed to report actively to superiors, yet most of them have no courage to talk with superiors. There have two performances in this situation. The one performance is that people dare not or are not willing to communicate with superiors when they have good ideas, because either they are overconfident and have no interest any more after several negations by leaders, or they lack of confidence and are afraid of criticism. The other one is that individuals do not report to managers when they find potential problems existed in work. The reason can be concluded that people who are over-dependent on leadership always follow their leaders and have no question to them. Actually, whichever kind of employees is irresponsible for work. In fact, even though we are just the employees, we should consider issues in the sight of the enterprise rather than individuals and adjust our attitude from â€Å"responsible for leadership† to â€Å"responsible for enterprise†. Lack of Communication between Departments. In the most companies, it has been the main problem that different departments hardly communicate sincerely with each other and have no sense of mutual support and positive cooperation (Shiwei Yu, 2008). To resolve the problem, enterprise should firstly review whether the department position of it is reasonable, and then establish the relation mode of â€Å"suppliers and customers† among the all departments, consequently foster the sense of service for different department, so that employees can communicate with sincerity and make efforts together to achieve the goal of enterprise. Virtually, the whole process of resolution is the process of OP applying. Lack of Communication with Subordinates Superiors involved in other business seldom talk with employees, let alone instruct and advice their work, which is responsible for the phenomenon that increasing companies spend over one month in recruiting and training new staff, yet don’t have one day to communicate with their employees(Shiwei Yu). The reason could be conclude as the following two sides: Managers prefer enjoy the feel at high stand to communicate with employees personally. We have to acknowledge that there exist such managers who are arbitrary and hardly accept opinions from the inferiors. If they invariably ignore the subordinate advice and views, it would only discourage the enthusiasm and responsibility of staff. Certainly, there have a latent yet inevitable reason that managers are afraid of being transcended by the subordinate. In addition, it is also an important problem that superiors communicate with inferiors without skills. For the leadership, effective communication not only promotes work smoothly, but also helps to establish their image. Furthermore, as the managers, they have rights and obligations to communicate with inferiors actively as well as know and develop capability and responsibility of employees, just like Toyota Motor Corporation CEO spends two thirds time in chatting with engineers and dealers, while the Boeing Company CEO invites the senior managers to share their exciting stories, and the leadership of Ericsson helps employees make personal development plans every year (Communication Case Study, 2009). Use to cope with external problems Nowadays many companies have the experiences using communications theories to help themselves alleviate crisis and maintain their stable development. Facing crises from exterior factors, companies should first think about how to coordinate each department and communicate with consumers (â€Å"Communication Theories†, In MBAlib, The MBA Encyclopedia, 2010)? What we need to know is that consumers are inclined to the attitude companies express to event rather than the fact itself that is happened. Clients could forgive your mistakes, yet not accept your ignorance. So when the problems occurred, enterprises should first respond and express the determination to deal with them. That is to say, communication is the principal method to resolve problems. The â€Å"Sudan I† event KFC suffered is a wonderful example to support the statement. On March 15th 2005, all KFC outlets in China were found using banned dye Sudan I, the cancer-causing colorant in the sauce of New Orleans roast chicken wings and chicken hamburgers. And then many consumers sued KFC and asked it for their injury compensation. As we know, KFC has been successful in China since it first stepped in the Chinese market in 1987; however this event made KFC loss a large number of customers in a short time. According to a survey, the loss rate of clients of KFC raised to unprecedented 50% in over half stores. Facing a series of emergencies, KFC responded in first time, at that night of event exposure. All KFC outlets stopped selling New Orleans roast chicken wings and chicken hamburgers at the next day, destroyed all rest sauce and posted bulletins in all stores for apology. Each department was connected. Meanwhile, the managers of KFC actively contacted with the victims and accounted for the event as well as the results of survey to eliminate doubts of the public. From the example, we could find the application of communication theories is used in every details of the process of event resolving. First of all, just because of the effective organizational communication taken, all departments and outlets could act in concert to calm the storm immediately. Furthermore, the manager even communicated with customers in person in order to express their apology and sincerity. So IC could be applied more among individuals to achieve what we want. How to ameliorate business communication As we all know, the effective communication between managers and employees depends on the negotiability and share of information in internal organization and is responsible for improving the work efficiency and enhancing decision scientificity and rationality. So how to ameliorate business communication ? The aspect of interpersonal communication 1. Adjust the attitude of communication Along with the information network and communication technology advancement in modern society, the ways of communication between individuals become more various and richer than ever before. On the surface, the connection is indeed increasingly frequent and intimate, yet what is the fact? Most communication has been driven by material benefits. So communicators in business should make much account of not only the process of systematized information communication, but the spiritual communication (HRoot, 2010). 2. Learn to listen Tracey once suggested that the managers of human resource should spend 65% in listening, 25% in speaking and 10% in reading and writing (2006). Thus we could see the significance of listening for communication. More important, only by listening can we detect the others’ heart and logical thinking, communicate with them better and finally attain the objective. 3. Put emphases on nonverbal expression Nonverbal information includes expression, pronunciation and intonation, gesture and so on. Actually this kind of communication more easily touches people than language performance. So weather you send or receive messages, you should notice the power and effect of nonverbal expression. The aspect of organizational organization 1. Speech with confidence Speech is a quite fundamental and common part of OC. For most people, talking is considered as a normal activity, yet speech often make individuals nervous and overwhelmed. However, we often could be asked for speech in formal occasions, even though just several sentences. When we make a speech in a formal occasion, we should keep our speech tempo slow enough and volume loud enough to make ourselves heard by everyone. Meanwhile, we should realize that appropriate words, image and posture are helpful for people understanding (HRoot, 2010). 2. Organize effective conference Conference as one kind of formal communication is indispensable part of OC. The elaborate plan and explicit theme are the primary guarantee to accomplish the goal of meeting. Moreover, when you chair a meeting, you should notice weather the atmosphere is accustomed to listening or communicating, thereby mastering initiative in the activity of communication. Conclusion American famous futurist (1999), John Naisbitt, said â€Å"The competition of future is the competition of management. The focus of management competition lies in the effective communication among the staff of each social organization and the organizations themselves. This sentence simply and accurately points out the essentials and significance of IC and OC for enterprise management. From the above discussion about communication theories, we could see that communication has been an effective tool for modern management. Only through effective IC, the ideas and suggestion from employees could be taken seriously; only by effective OC could the performance of organizational members be appraised a nd recognized. In one organization, whether IC or OC is all to share and utilize resources better, consequently maintain the sustainable development. Reference Homans, G. C. (2002). â€Å"Introducing Communication Theory†. American Journal of Sociology 63 (6): 597–606. Retrieved February 20 , 2010 from Academic Search Premier EBSCO database. Communication Theories. (2010, December 19). In MBAlib, The MBA Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 20, 2011, from http://wiki. mbalib. com/wiki/%E6%B2%9F%E9%80%9A Organization Communication. (2011, January 22). In Baidu, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 20, 2011, from http://www. baidu. com/FORUM_POST_900001_900005_858561_0. HTM Interpersonal Communication. 2011, February 16). In Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Retrieved February 22, 2011, from http://en. wikipedia. org/w/index. php? title=Interpersonal_communication&oldid=414279842 Communication. (2010). In Scientology Volunteer Ministers: Online Training. Retrieved February 22, 2011, from http://www. volunteerministers. org/solutions/communication. html? source=gaw&gclid=CNbK_tjlu6YCFQJvbAodOlWgHw Shiwei Yu. (2006). †Commu nication skills in modern enterprises † in Huacheng Wang, Introduction of Enterprises Management (b), Higher Education Press. Retrieve February 24,2011, from Science Direct database. Charles, S. W. (1998). â€Å"Stumbling Toward Identity: The Emergence of Organizational Communication as a Field of Study† in McPhee and Tompkins, Organizational Communication: Traditional Themes and New Directions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Retrieved February 28, 2011 from EBSCO Host database. Communication Case Study, In Tangguokuaixun, Retrieved March 1, 2011, from http://info. tjkx. com/news/00001346EB/2004-10-21/03984BC948. html The problems of Organizational Communication. (2010, March 31). In MBAlib, The MBA Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 4, 2011, from http://wiki. mbalib. com/wiki/%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E6%B2%9F%E9%80%9 Tracey, W. R. (2006), â€Å"The management of Human Resource† ,In William R. Tracey, The key skills(4th). Retrieved March 4, 2011, from EBSCO Host database. Management communication. (2010). In HRoot, The free website. Retrieved March 4, 2011, from http://www. hroot. com/contents/4/120726. html Naisbitt,J. (1999). Communication Theories: Perspectives, processes, and contexts, 9th edition. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. Retrieved February 22, 2011, from EBSCO Host database.

5 Points of Oedipus Rex Essay

Five Important Points of â€Å"On Misunderstanding the Oedipus Rex† †¢ Oedipus Rex attempt to justify the ways of God to man by: 1. â€Å"Proving† that we get what we deserve. An example is how Oedipus treated Creon badly, so the gods punished him. 2. Oedipus Rex is â€Å"a tragedy of destiny†, the play â€Å"proves that man has no freewill and is controlled by gods. 3. Sophocles was â€Å"a pure artist†, so he is not interested in justifying the gods, and Oedipus Rex was merely an exciting play. †¢ Oedipus did horrible things unknowingly, if they did it knowingly, readers won’t feel pity. The tragic hero must have a big moral flaw. †¢ A significant difference between Sophocles and Aeschylus is that Sophocles thinks that fate is unconditional, and can not be avoided. Oedipus tries to avoid the oracle given about him that he will sleep with his mother and kill his father, but in the end, it still happens. Aeschylus’ thinking is that fate could be avoided. According to him, the oracle given to Laius was avoidable: â€Å"Do not beget a child; for if you do, that child will kill you.† †¢ Oedipus blinded himself to cut himself off from contact with humanity. If he suicides, he would meet his parents in the next world. He blinded himself because he could not face the living or the dead. †¢ Oedipus Rex is a play about human greatness. Oedipus fell from his high position to the lowest of the low, and he still has the strength to accept and endure it. His inner strength is virtuous, because he pursues truth at whatever personal cost.

Benefits of Allowing Students to Bring Pets With Them to College

Benefits of Allowing Students to Bring Pets With Them to College To most of us, pets are family and we treat them as such. We give them the love and affection they show us daily. They know when we are sad, happy, or even stressed, and always know how to make our day better. If you’ve grown up with a family pet, it might be hard to leave them at home when you go off to college. Becoming a college student in general is very stressful and eye-opening, especially if you go out of state. Losing one of your best friends can be a tough transition to go through when going through that milestone. Many college students go through stages of depression and anxiety and have almost no way to cope with it. Allowing students to bring pets with them to college is beneficial to them by helping them cope with stress, anxiety, depression, and loneliness. Scientists have concluded many studies proving that animals improve your overall health and well-being. â€Å"A study of women in China found that those who were dogs owners had fewer doctor visits, took fewer days off sick from work, and exercised more often than non-dog owners† (Casciotti, Zuckerman). These results were found because pets, to a lot of owners, are like family and are treated as such. Pets always know when we are sad, happy, or scared. For example, some dogs love to greet their owners when they get home after a day of work, or cats love to purr and rub against you when they want your affection. Studies have shown that no matter your age or disability, pets can you make you feel like you have â€Å"a sense of responsibility and purpose that contributes to their overall well-being† (Csciotti, Zuckerman). Although pets can be very loving and caring, they can also be very messy and hard to keep up with. Depending on the animal, training them can be a daunting task. Cleaning up after them and making sure they arent getting into things they arent supposed to is a struggle for all pet owners. This is why many parents get their kids pets when they are young. Owning a pet teaches the individual about responsibility and what it is like to own something and take great care of it. For example, learning how to teach dogs tricks, how to behave properly, not to beg, and potty train them are just a few ways they can teach you responsibility (Kaye). As child, this can develop into life long skills and help you mature quicker. As a college student, this could help you with time manage ment and learning how to do things independently. College teaches you how to become independent and transition from childhood to adulthood. For some, this is never easy to do. There are always some kids who come to college and arent familiar with how to be independent and not have to rely on your parents all of the time. Many soon dropout due to the overwhelming stress, anxiety, and not being able to handle doing everything on their own. Students come to college and get very homesick as well. This may be the result of missing their family and pets. For most, the hardest thing to do when you leave for college is to leave your childhood pet at home. Transitioning into to adulthood can be a very stressful time in everybodys life. You have to rely on your own income to stabilize yourself and be independent on where you live and find a stable job. Studies have shown that owing a dog through early adulthood can help reduce stress and anxiety. Pet owners in the early 20’s also have a higher success rate in finding a stable job with a living income (Robinson, Segal). Pets can also serve as a companion when lonely. Some can even act as an audience when reciting a big presentation or stress reliever when finals are creeping up. Many students have tried to bring â€Å"Therapy Dogs† to college. Their reasoning is that their dogs help them reduce the stress and anxiety that many young students face daily. Some can even detect panic attacks before they happen and help calm their owner down (Martin). The number of people being diagnosed with depression and ADHD have risen dramatically over the years. The demand for Therapy Dogs have also increased in response. Depression is a growing problem in the teen/early adulthood community. Statistics have shown that students facing stress and loneliness in college are more likely to commit suicide and take their own life. One study showed how owning a pet can reduce loneliness and depression. Theres a reason dogs are â€Å"Mans Beet Friend† and thats because they act as a companion and show you love and affection. Their bright attitudes and soft, furry coat are proven to relieve any anxiety or depression you might have (Casciotti, Zuckerman). College can be a very hard transition for most teens. Most come into college with a preexisting depression disorder. Starting college can be difficult since you are away from home, on your own, and self-dependent. It has been proven that having a pet can help ones mood. From being sad, lonely, and depressed, the subject immediately became happy and excited when brought a dog (Nagengast). The same was done with a cat and the results didnt vary. A study given to California University states that 86% of their students would want to bring their pet to college or would like to have a pet for college (Martin). Some colleges have even agreed to do testing and studies by allowing some students to have a pet for a certain amount of time and compare their work ethic and behavior over those weeks compared to when they did not own a pet. The results showed how students with dogs were happier and more engaged in the classroom. They did better on tests and performed academically and athletically b etter. Their grades went up and became more engaged in the college community. Those who didnt have a pet were more likely to go out and party and put off studying. They would also fall asleep in class, do poorly on school work, and become more secluded (Martin). College teaches you how to become independent and transition from childhood to adulthood. For some, this is never easy to do. There are always some kids who come to college and arent familiar with how to be independent and not have to rely on your parents all of the time. Many soon dropout due to the overwhelming stress, anxiety, and not being able to handle doing everything on their own. Students come to college and get very homesick as well. This may be the result of missing their family and pets. For most, the hardest thing to do when you leave for college is to leave your childhood pet at home. Transitioning into to adulthood can be a very stressful time in everybodys life. You have to rely on your own income to stabilize yourself and be independent on where you live and find a stable job. Studies have shown that owing a dog through early adulthood can help reduce stress and anxiety. Pet owners in the early 20’s also have a higher success rate in finding a stable job with a living income (Robinson, Segal). Pets can also serve as a companion when lonely. Some can even act as an audience when reciting a big presentation or stress reliever when finals are creeping up. Many students have tried to bring â€Å"Therapy Dogs† to college. Their reasoning is that their dogs help them reduce the stress and anxiety that many young students face daily. Some can even detect panic attacks before they happen and help calm their owner down (Martin). The number of people being diagnosed with depression and ADHD have risen dramatically over the years. The demand for Therapy Dogs have also increased in response. Depression is a growing problem in the teen/early adulthood community. Statistics have shown that students facing stress and loneliness in college are more likely to commit suicide and take their own life. One study showed how owning a pet can reduce loneliness and depression. Theres a reason dogs are â€Å"Mans Beet Friend† and thats because they act as a companion and show you love and affection. Their bright attitudes and soft, furry coat are proven to relieve any anxiety or depression you might have (Casciotti, Zuckerman). College can be a very hard transition for most teens. Most come into college with a preexisting depression disorder. Starting college can be difficult since you are away from home, on your own, and self-dependent. It has been proven that having a pet can help ones mood. From being sad, lonely, and depressed, the subject immediately became happy and excited when brought a dog (Nagengast). The same was done with a cat and the results didnt vary. A study given to California University states that 86% of their students would want to bring their pet to college or would like to have a pet for college (Martin). When going to college it can be very beneficial to have a pet to bring with you. They help in many ways. They teach you responsibility, improve your mood, and help fight against depression, stress, and anxiety. It is clinically proven that owning a pet can dramatically improve your overall well-being. This can be crucial to a student during a tough time in their life. Having a pet can also decrease student suicides and even student dropout rate. Bringing pets to college will be very beneficial to the students and should be allowed in more colleges and universities.

Article Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Article - Term Paper Example department, mainly lack of awareness of the information security concerns and the swiftly evolving complexity of the systems, the cumulative capacity and the reach information and communication technology and the transnational nature of communication networks. It is evident in the paper what the three authors are arguing about ethics, and security in information technology is the focal topic being argued in the global society (ASSON, 2012). Without ethics in this field with little or no progress will be witnessed; many nations are trying to apply ethics in the field of information technology to ensure they are rapid growth in the sector. I do agree with the authors statements this is because, without ethics there will be an extremely slow development in a nations economy. ICT is a key player in a countrys economy making the country’s economy flourish. Security is another key player proper surveillance should be done to make the participants do what is expected by following the laws governing any organization. ICT can be used as an actual tool which will be used to support democracy and freedom worldwide. ICT is a dual character, and there is an exceptionally high potential of ICT to be an effective and useful resource for autocracy or

Critical Perspective on Management and Leadership (Indians call Essay

Critical Perspective on Management and Leadership (Indians call centers) - Essay Example In many organizations, the issue of stress has recorded an escalating trend over the years. In this context, therefore, there is a dire need for managers and leaders to come up with effective mechanisms that can alleviate the causative agents of stress in the workplace. Stress has been linked with the ability to reduce job satisfaction, employee involvement and engagement in the workplace and most importantly derails the ability of the organizations to maintain an upward trend of job performance (Elliot, Herbane and Swartz, 2009). Putting this in perspective, it is warranted to argue that critical management and leadership cannot be alienated from the fact that, organizations need to perform their utmost best. In this context, therefore, this essay shall endeavor to highlight the Indian call centers and the repercussions of critical management in the workplace. The essay shall also scrutinize the contributions that critical leadership and management has imposed on the Indian call centers. The implications of critical management on leaders will also be a point that will be put under careful consideration. These two factors will be discussed under the theme of workplace bullying in the Indian call centers. ... To a great extent, the form of bullying that takes shape in this workplace has been accredited to the fact that, the employees have made great attempts to fit in the demanding conditions of the workplace. Workplace bullying according to Oade (2010) has been described as the negative implications that revolve around aggression and hostility in the workplace. If the bullying becomes extreme and persistence, there is a great likelihood that the entire process will be recurrent; thus, cause massive effects on the employees. One of the major reasons behind the predicaments in the workplace is that employees are continually subjected to circumstances in their environments that result into consistent exploitation in the workplace. Indian’s call centers are responsible for employment of a myriad number of people in Indian call centers. The Indian call centers serve a large clientele base, inclusive of the United States of America. Cruz and Noronha (2009) indicate that it is this fact that has led to outsourcing beings a major setback in the operations of the Indian all centers. The employees of Indian call center are not only faced with the challenge of handling Indian’s large clientele base, but also clients from other nations. In the perspective of the development of the country, this can be attributed to the solution towards development, but in the context of employee satisfaction, it can be argued that the workplace is a burden to almost all its employees. In terms of working hours, Cruz and Noronha (2009) argue that the employees in the call centers hardly have time for themselves. A case in point is when the management of the call centre made attempts to come up with

Hume's analysis of the process by which we make causal judgments Essay - 1

Hume's analysis of the process by which we make causal judgments - Essay Example This paper is going to discuss Hume’s analysis of the process by which we make causal judgments. Causality can be defined as the relationship between an object and a fact; it is among the most recognized ideas that we have. Causality is involved in almost all undertakings or human way of thinking; it is assumed in every argument and sensible actions. It is considered a beneficial idea in all areas of philosophy including philosophy science from the time of ancient Greeks to present. Hume as a philosopher, he defines causality as something that clinches things together. Knowing what causes are assists us to know how minds might or might not relate to bodies, how bodies might approach to create changes in other bodies, how thoughts might or might not influence deeds and how free they might or might not work. Therefore, all human beings are naturally attributed to certain occurrences of causal actions upon others. This means that whenever there is change in something, there is a quality that disappears, and another one appears, and the source of these changes is cause. In other wo rds, for every quality produced as a result of change, there is a cause for that. Many changes occur due to the relation between change and cause. Hence, this natural acknowledgement of the association between cause and effect to occurrences is at the forefront of all the philosophical declaration and analysis. There are characteristics that help to differentiate the causal relations in the universe, which include non- anthropomorphic, uniformity and determinism. Non – anthropomorphic, causal relation means a name given to change, and that in causal correlation wishes, purpose and desires are never mentioned. Uniformity describes causal relations as unchanging habits between facts, on the other hand, determinism characteristics emphasize that there is a connection between a cause and an effect. Meaning causality is prejudiced by the presence of other

Film and Television Genre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Film and Television Genre - Essay Example Film genre can be classified into the following.Action films.These are films characterized by fights, battles and destructive crises such as floods, natural disasters and fires. Good examples are the James Bond films and martial arts films.Adventure films.They are exciting stories with new experience, they include films that are based on treasure hunts, jungle and desert epics.Comedy.These are designed to provoke laughter with jokes, they exaggerate a situation. There are various types of comedies they include romantic comedies, black comedies, slapstick and parodies.Crime or gangster films.They are based on actions to combat crime, they are in most cases referred to as detective mystery films and examples include serial killer films and bank robbery films.Drama films.Are those films that portray realistic characters and life situations. This is the largest film genre and they do not focus on specific effects such as comedy or action.Historical films.They are usually historically ima ged films that are focus on myths, legends and heroic figures. Good examples are Bible-based films.Horror films.They are films that are designed to frighten and invoke our hidden fears. They include satanic films, monster films, Dracula films and serial killers.Musical or dance films.They are films that are centred on music, dance and songs. Examples are concert films and musical comedies.Science fiction films.They are based on imaginative scientific ideas, they include alien films, distant planet films. The genre categories are broad enough to accommodate any film ever made. Film categories can never be precise and films tend to be crossbreeds or hybrids, this is to mean that a film has more than one genre that is overlapping. Detective mystery film, they cannot be classified as main genre films because they are both thrillers and gangster films. Therefore they are classified according to their hybridity and not by specific genres. From the above examples of hybrids we can conclude the present films are classified as hybrids, it is for the simple reason that they cannot be classified as specific genres. The genre classification has no closed boundaries because they are formed by certain sets of conventions and classification is based on recurring patterns.... Walt Disney is the main producer of these films, they include Mickey Mouse cartoon, Popeye and superman. (http://www.filmsite.org/animatedfilms.html) Children and family films. These are non offensive films, they are usually made to entertain the whole family. They do not include scenes with violence, nudity or sex. Classic films. These are films that are referred to as favourites by the whole universe, they are high quality films and often gain quality after re screening. A good example is King Kong (1933). Documentary films. These films are non fiction based, they are narratives of historical events, an example is the Memphis belle(1944) which is a World War 2 documentary. Sexual or erotic films. This are films that present human nudity and love making, they are pornographic in nature. The genre categories are broad enough to accommodate any film ever made. Film categories can never be precise and films tend to be crossbreeds or hybrids, this is to mean that a film has more than one genre that is overlapping. Examples of hybrids. Detective mystery film, they cannot be classified as main genre films because they are both thrillers and gangster films. Therefore they are classified according to their hibridity and not by specific genres. Disaster films, they are both action and adventure films, an example is the hurricane film of 1937 and the high and the mighty film of 1954. Sports films, are those that based on sports, this films may be fictious or non fictious and they are hybrids. Examples include the rocky film of 1976, remember the titan's film of the year 2000. Thrillers and suspense films, these are films that are based on suspense promotion, they are

Analyzing Falculty Characteristics in Adult Learning Essay

Analyzing Falculty Characteristics in Adult Learning - Essay Example This paper is an examination of the various characteristics in which a faculty member responsible for teaching adults must have, in order to be an effective teacher. This is for both an online and on-ground teaching and learning environment. This paper will specifically identify these characteristics, and use examples in supporting the various facts identified. Palis and Quiros (2014) denotes that a variety of models and theories are developed for purposes of explaining this concept of adult learning. One such theory is andragogy, and this theory was developed by Malcolm Knowles in the year 1973 (Fraser and Hyland-Russell, 2011). In meeting the objectives of this paper, the researcher will have to identify the characteristic of an online learner, as well as identify a desirable characteristic of a faculty member aimed at satisfying the needs of the adult learner, based on his or her identified characteristic. Andragogy is a theory designed for purposes of addressing the learning needs of adults, and it bases its assumptions that there is a considerable difference in the learning characteristics depicted between adults, and children (Palis and Quiros, 2014). To understand the various characteristics needed for adult teachers, it is first important to understand the needs of adult learners, and their characteristics. Knowles, Holton and Swanson (2011) in his theory of andragogy identifies five major assumptions and characteristics of adult learners. One characteristic of an adult learner is that they have the ability of independently directing his own learning. Knowles, Holton and Swanson (2011) denote that adult learners are always self-reliant, autonomous, and independent. On this basis, they always have a self-directed goal that they aim to achieve. Based on this characteristic of adults, Fraser and Hyland-Russell (2011) denotes that an online teacher has to act as a facilitator, and th eir responsibility should be to guide the adult

Working in a Virtual World Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Working in a Virtual World - Essay Example This brings in the best of the talent present in the multiple locations in which the virtual world exists. Moreover, the virtual world brings forth the use of many technologies, which makes it even more interesting, as communication and collaboration becomes easier and working on any project becomes a dream-come-true even if each member of the project is kilometers away from each other. The barriers that would have been present in any virtual organizations - that of time and distance - have been conveniently removed by the technologies that are used, essentially that of telecommunications and computing. Furthermore, the virtual organization is flexible, because it is the management of an organization over a virtual set up. This also makes the virtual organization dynamic and ever-changing; it is restless in nature and dares to experiment with new ideas and creative techniques of operation. And lastly, the most important attribute which gives virtual organizations a unique touch is th e integration that results and which enhances and brings out the best in all individuals to level out complete synergy and work in favor of the organization. There is always a limit as to the efficient performance of the communications network that has been set up. As will be mentioned in the next few pages, handling and managing communication with remote workers will be one of the biggest challenges for the organization. For example, there will be a potential limit as to how much of transmission can the bandwidth set up do. Therefore, the moment that limit is crossed, the speed of communication gets slowed down and thus collaboration gets difficult. (Gareth, 1998) A very big disadvantage for virtual organizations lies in the fact that there may be hardware and software compatibility issues with the remote workers. The hardware that the remote worker uses will most probably be personal and would not be a specialized computer, rather just a simple one to keep at a house. The software that the management expects the remote worker to use would be specialized and would not be that efficient on an old, slow or mediocre computer. Thus, this mismatch is likely to result in low productivity and frustration of the employee to get things done the way management wants him to do. Computer security is an issue for the virtual organizations because they exist on around a million personal computers of all their remote workers. Leakage of information is highly likely. Technology that is being used in managing a virtual organization is most likely to evolve over time. Updating it in the many computers of the many remote workers would be difficult. The Advantages - Employee and Employer The virtual organization has many advantages for the employee: Often organizations experience an increase in production, but there is no as such acceleration in productivity, as should be the case. Therefore, implementing a virtual organization helps increase productivity and the number of output per worker, thus improving quality and not just the quantity of work that is being produced. Moreover, the employee is always at a pressure from all the

Prior to Burial Essay Example for Free

Prior to Burial Essay The funeral service industry in the United States is discussed. A brief history of how funeral homes and associated services got their start. The various personnel and duties of those personnel are discussed. In addition, the educational and licensing requirements are outlined. A brief analysis of alternate funeral options is offered as well. The death of a loved on is always a painful experience. The funeral service industry recognizes the difficulty of planning a funeral. The job of individuals in the funeral service industry is to help family and friends design a funeral that meets the needs of the family and friends while also honoring the wishes of the deceased. In addition, funeral directors and other staff members work with different religious groups in order to ease the transition from life to death. There are many aspects of the funeral service industry and they are discussed and analyzed. The history of the funeral service industry is also offered. The funeral service industry has its roots in Chicago. Chicago has been the national center of the funeral industry since the late nineteenth century when the industry began to become more specialized and personalized (Wilson, 1). Prior to the 1830s, families who required the services of undertakers often dealt with people for whom the funeral service was just a part time job. In the 1830s cemeteries began to be created throughout Chicago. Cemeteries were staffed by gravediggers such as Henry Gherkin who was a Prussian immigrant and one of the city’s first gravediggers. However, the job of undertaker was still a part time affair. Many undertakers also ran other businesses when not helping prepare the dead for burial. These undertakers also sold caskets and provided funeral services (Wilson, 1). The growing population of Chicago prompted the creation of more specialized funeral services. In 1868, the undertakers of Chicago formed the Chicago Association of Undertakers which led to the creation of the Illinois School of Embalming in 1884. In the following decades, many more schools devoted to â€Å"mortuary science† were created. By 1920, embalmers in the state of Illinois were required to be licensed by the state. The specialization of the funeral service industry meant that funeral directors were viewed with more authority regarding funeral services and the handling of the dead (Wilson, 1). The changes that occurred in Chicago in the funeral industry spread throughout the country and led to the current funeral service industry. â€Å"Death is a part of life† (Clark. 231) and the funeral industry helps ease the transition between the two. There are many services offered that are designed to make dying and what happens afterwards easier to think about. The funeral service business is thriving (Clark, 231). Living wills have become increasingly more popular due to the thriving funeral industry. In addition, planning a funeral service has become increasingly more complex and funeral homes are now offering the choice to allow them to plan the funeral (Clark, 231). There are more services offered besides these including embalming, cremation, casket sales and burial. One important job an undertaker or funeral director has is to prepare the body for burial. This usually involves embalming and dressing the body. First, the body is drained of all fluids and then stored in alcohol of formaldehyde. The body is also wrapped in cloths soaked in alcohol or formaldehyde in order to keep it moist. The goal is to embalm a person as quickly after death as possible in order to get better results. This is important to families who plan to hold a viewing of the body prior to the service. In addition, embalmers also try to preserve the integrity of the dead person by attempting to make them appear as much like they did when they were alive. Massage cream is used to soften the skin and make it look more alive. Facial features are set using cotton in the nose and shapers in the mouth. Finally, the body is dressed, given a manicure and the hair is also styled (Anonymous, 5). Most people choose to use the services of an embalmer even if they plan to eventually cremate the body. This is to allow the family members and friends a chance to view their loved one for the last time. In addition to the embalming process, many funeral homes also offer to sell caskets as well as cremation containers. These range from plain wood to extremely fancy creations. The one eventually chosen depends on the wishes of the family as well as their budget. Many funeral homes also plan the services including music, flowers, scheduling and burials. This includes taking into account the religious preferences of the family when planning prayers, hymns and liturgy. Similarly, many also offer cremation services. The process of planning a funeral is complex and funeral homes, undertakers, morticians and all those involved must work together to make the process run smoothly. To that end, there are fifty-seven mortuary science schools in the United States that are accredited by the American Board of Funeral Service Education. From these schools, there are almost 35,000 state certified embalmers and about 32,000 funeral directors in the United States. All together, embalmers, funeral directors and morticians number 139,000 (Anonymous, 5). Funeral directors must also be licensed by the state and this process includes two years of education as well as a one year apprenticeship. They must also pass a qualifying examination in the state where they plan to practice (Anonymous, 7). The last person involved in the funeral service industry is the coroner. The coroner is responsible for investigating sudden, suspicious, violent and unexplained deaths. In addition, the coroner must also review the deaths of â€Å"persons whose bodies are to be cremated, buried, or otherwise disposed of so as to be thereafter unavailable for examination† (Anonymous, 8). This must be done before the funeral director can release the body. There are many things commonly associated with funerals today. Many of these relics are from the nineteenth century when funerals began to become more specialized. These include such things as the coffin, the hearse and the black clothing (Beadle, 870). There is a new trend in the funeral service industry today for alternative types of funerals (Beadle, 870). Many people are reexamining the way funerals have been conducted up until now and realizing that they don’t have to follow tradition if they don’t want to. For example, many people are opting to be buried in custom built coffins that represent their identity. There have been boat shaped, duck shaped and recycled fruit box versions (Beadle, 870). Other people are choosing not to wear black by instead wearing colors that represent their loved one (Beadle, 870). The funeral service industry today is similar to what it looked like when it got its start in Chicago. It remains a somber event most often surrounded by black and sadness. Family members and friends choose caskets or cremation containers based largely on their own personal budget. The hymns and prayers that are said during the funeral service are chosen based on religious preferences and the personality of the deceased. There are a few individuals choosing to go alternate routes but that remains the exception rather than the rule. One change that has been made is with regards to the licensing and education requirements of funeral directors, morticians and embalmers. When the funeral industry got its start in Chicago, the people performing these duties only did it part time as more of a hobby than a profession. They most often had regular jobs also. This changed over time as it was realized that these services were much needed and people in the industry needed to devote their full time attention to the funeral service. This led to the formation of mortuary science schools that adequately trained individuals to correctly prepare a body and provide the various other services that go along with funerals. The funeral industry is different than most jobs because it relies on death to profit. As a result, it takes dedicated personnel to run funeral homes efficiently. This is why education and training has become so important. Families and friends rely on those in the funeral industry to provide the best funeral possible. This is an important job because the death of a loved one is not an easy thing to deal with. Anonymous. (2008). Prior to Burial: Preparation of the Body in the United States. Retrieved on September 14, 2008 from http://www. uwosh. edu/faculty_staff/hardt/Death%20Questions/Prior%20to%20Burial. htm. Beadle, Joan. (2001). DEAD: An End to Conveyor Belt Funerals. BMJ, 322 (7290): 870. Clark, Jocalyn. (2003). Death Becomes Us. BMJ, 327 (4808): 231. Wilson, Mark R. (2008). Funeral Service Industry. Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved on September 14, 2008 from http://www. encyclopedia. chicagohistory. org/pages/491. html.

Foucaults Theory Of Power

Foucaults Theory Of Power The entire work of Michael Foucault is one of the most important and innovative theoretical productions of the 20th century. It has been characterized as complex, daring and often in conflict with the prevailing views of his time whereas it still rises, over twenty years after his death, many debates and controversies in the fields of philosophy and political theory (Zdoukou 2007). Hence, the theoretical framework of this research is based on his work. The piece of work that I analyze in this thesis is the theory of power. Drawing on this notion, I will investigate the implementation of the screening programmes not only as a quest for their necessity in order to reduce the cervical cancer incidence rates but also as a process of working on the self. Thus personal responsibility is created that deploys the discourse on self-care (Heyes 2006). In order to people adopt the personal responsibility, health education and promotion is essential. According to Foucault, power is developed around a principal axis which can be described as the analysis of objectification, forms of knowledge and power relations through which people in western societies become subjects and objects of knowledge and power. Starting from his book Discipline and punish, Foucault studies the disciplinary power and how the perception of imprisonment, for example in the Panopticon, under the disciplinary society has been established in the modern society. In the same book he proceeds to the most radical use of the concept of the body in which disciplinary power is instituted not only to control them but also to make them productive themselves. Through the continuous surveillance, the detailed collection, recording and classification of behaviors and tendencies a new subject established, the inmate. The inmate under the surveillance system is induced to watch over himself because he is offered the illusion that he is monitored. Thus in the theory of power, discipline and surveillance take place through the screening programmes which reflect the governance of the self and create subjected and practiced bodies. Contrary to anatomo-politics of the human body which was created in the 18th century, Foucault goes into a criticism and deals with the notion of bio-politics which isnt concentrated on the individual bodies, but on the management of the populations. Hence, the sum of these docile bodies in the society establishes the management of the popul ation (bio-politics) (Broer 2012). Thus, Foucault theory of power has set a main question that this research will investigate: what are the factors that influence the female populations decision on receiving the screening tests and ultimately become docile bodies? The development of the National Health Systems in the UK and Greece National Health Service (NHS) The United Kingdom is a sovereign state located in the north-west Europe. It includes the island of Great Britain, a north-east part of Iceland as well as smaller islands and it covers a population of almost 62.5 millions of people (Chang, et al. 2011) (Currie and Guah 2007). The UK provides a national health service to all permanent residents about 58 millions of people- which is free at the point of need and is paid out of general taxation (Chang, et al. 2011) (Gorsky 2008). The national health system of the UK is the main representative of the national health systems worldwide. It belongs to the Beveridge model whose main characteristics are the increased state intervention and state funding of health services (Yfantopoylos 2005). NHS is the first completed health system which provided universal and free healthcare for all, based on the principles of social solidarity and equal access to healthcare services (Yfantopoylos 2005). Initially until 1900, the UK didnt provide a social insurance system. Any social insurance, in the sense of the protection of the population, was offered by the church. Healthcare was available only to the wealthy and those who could seek treatment through charity or teaching hospitals (Chang, et al. 2011). Because of the fact that the national funding in the health sector was lacking, the hospitals were in poor financial conditions (Shortell and Gibson 1971). During the Second World War, a public health system was designed that aimed to offer services covering the whole population and its services were financed by central taxation (Chang, et al. 2011). In 1942 the Beveridge report was vital for a health system that protects the population against social dangers such as unemployment and sickness (Yfantopoylos 2005). Ultimately, the Beveridge report was the first step towards a national health service that protects the whole population. In 1948 the National Health System (NHS) was cre ated by the Labour government following the Beveridge review (Currie and Guah 2007) and implementing the 1946 NHS Act regulation (Yfantopoylos 2005). Since its inception the most challenging and notable change the NHS brought was that the health system was split into three services; the hospital services, the primary care and community services (Chang, et al. 2011). After the creation of the NHS all hospitals were under the government ownership. An additional hospital management structure of regional hospital boards and hospital management committees was designed to support the hospital services. The national health system upgraded the role of the General Practitioners (GPs) who were administered separately (Gorsky 2008) and served as gatekeepers of the primary care directing the patients to the different levels of healthcare (Yfantopoylos 2005). The primary care consists of dental, pharmaceutical and ophthalmic services and was organized by executive councils. Maternity, child health, midwifery, health visiting, home nursing and other post hospital services were administered by local health authorities (Shortell and Gibson 1971). The main purpose of this NHS structure was to provide a comprehensive, universal and free healthcare (Gorsky 2008) at the point of need focusing on the equity in the access to healthcare services. Currently, the UK still has a state-sponsored healthcare system called NHS in which belong the National Health Service (England), NHS Scotland, NHS Wales and Health and Social Care in Northern Ireland (Chang, et al. 2011). The government funding covers the 85% of the healthcare expenditure while the remaining 15% is covered by the growing private sector (Chang, et al. 2011). The NHS organization is highly institutionalized and complex system. It consists of parliament, a secretary of state for health, other non-NHS organizations and strategic health authorities. Under these health authorities reside the NHS trusts, foundation trusts, primary care trusts and care trusts (Currie and Guah 2007) whereas NICE, an independent organization, is responsible for monitoring and reporting its performance to the parliament (Yfantopoylos 2005) (Currie and Guah 2007). As an institutionalized environment, UK has created a public sector with universal and free healthcare coverage at the point of need. Additionally, what has developed is a public sector ethos which is enriched by the value of serving the public (Currie and Guah 2007). Health professionals have set this value above any finance and cost-effectiveness issues whereas treatment is provided according to medical need irrespective of ability to pay (Currie and Guah 2007). This is the reason why the NHS has been proved to be the most efficient healthcare system in terms of quality, equity and access to healthcare among industrialized countries (Chang, et al. 2011). Within this framework, the NHS has developed various policies and institutionalized mechanisms for the best performance of the organization. One area has been in the implementation of cervical cancer screening strategies. Table 1: Current NHS Structure, July 2010 (youngfoundation.org) Greek Healthcare system (ESY) Alike the UK, Greece provides a national health system since 1983 which guarantees universal coverage and equity in access to healthcare services to 10 million legal residents (iefimerifa.gr, 2012) (statistics.gr, 2011) irrespective of any professional or regional conditions. In addition to the Greek population, healthcare is offered to all European and non European citizens based on multilateral and bilateral agreements (Saitakis and Papamichail 2005). The process that Greece followed in order to establish a universal healthcare system strongly resembles the one the UK developed several years before. Since the establishment of the Greek State there has been a great attempt to create a welfare state and organize the public health services in Greece. However, as in the UK, until 1900, only 10% of the Greek population, namely the wealthiest was offered healthcare coverage. With the introduction of the Ministry of Hygiene and Social Welfare in 1922 the level of care provided by the public hospitals was considered equally advanced, compared with other healthcare systems in Europe (WHO 1996). At that time, due to changes in the political arena, the refugees wave coming from Turkey stressed the need to create organized health authorities in order to meet the various health problems that occurred. In 1953 the first serious move was made by the government to establish an integrated and decentralized healthcare system (Katsikari 2011) creati ng health regions and councils in order to provide specialized and advanced health opinions based on morbidity (WHO 1996). Twenty years later and having been through a hard political period of dictatorship, Greece was flourished in all areas and the healthcare system was one of them. New social objectives were re-defined and new policies were implemented which intended to improve the health services, to reduce the inequalities in the access to healthcare and reallocate the limited resources in favor of the poor (Yfantopoulos 2001). It was in 1983 when the government passed legislation for the implementation of a National Health Service (ESY) which is the fundamental law of the National Healthcare System (Makaronis, et al. 2010). This legislation is still characterized as a major reform achievement for the reconstruction of the health system. However, its implementation didnt bring any changes in the management of the healthcare sector to ensure its effectiveness. This reform was bas ed on the principle that health is a social good which has to be provided by the State to the whole population regardless of social or economic conditions (Katsikari 2011). Other basic principles of this reform included the equity in the delivery of the healthcare services, the decentralization of the health services, the importance of the primary care creating a system of referral, social security, and the mix of public-private services (Katsikari 2011). The health policy in Greece was developed steadily over time and it was influenced but the trends of society, the human values, medicine and economy without plans and goals. Only after the Second World War did the organizing of the health authorities became essential in developed countries with a significant millstone the introduction of the National Health Service in the UK (Katsikari 2011). Currently, the welfare state in Greece is characterized as the combination of a social security system (Bismarck model) and a National Health Service system (Beveridge model) where everybody is entitled to the same healthcare treatment (Rovithis 2006). It is highly centralized and fragmented in which all the decisions are made from the central administration whereas the regional health authorities have limited power on resources and control (Rovithis 2006). Today, alongside the ESY, there is an equally powerful private sector where the biggest part of the health expenditure is concentrated (Vard aros 2008). The Regional Authorities were developed as in the UK. In order to give greater responsibility to regions, Greek primary care is provided within the Regional Health Authorities (PESY) by the outpatient section of rural centers and hospitals, polyclinics and also specialists (Saitakis and Papamichail 2005) and covers services concerning the prevention and diagnosis of a disease. The secondary care is offered either by public or private hospitals of by social insurance funds hospitals and covers services for inpatient treatment under the supervision of the Ministry of Health and Social Solidarity (Yfantopoulos 2001). Even though the last 15 years Greece has taken some measures, the health policy still had certain problems. These problems were concentrated on the funding and the effectiveness of the health services within the ESY, the numerous sickness funds, the regional inequalities in the health services and the internal mismanagement of the public hospitals. These problems were managed by the highly centralized Ministry of health (Katsikari 2011). Contrary to the UK, Greece lacks of an institutional body that is responsible for monitoring the quality control of the health system as well as to provide national economic guidance based on the cost effectiveness principle such as the National Institute of Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the UK (Rovithis 2006). So, it isnt surprising that Greece is among the high spenders on healthcare, spending 9% of the GDP for a doubtful quality of the healthcare services (Katsikari 2011). For that reason, the IMF implemented in 2011 austerity measures. The health care system in Greece has undergone major changes in order to reduce the health expenditure and improve the quality. Specifically, since January 2012 the 39 sickness funds which existed until recently have been replaced by the National Organization of Health Services (EOPYY). This organization incorporates 4 of the biggest sickness funds covering the 85% of the total population. The fact that these changes are still ongoing, doesnt give any space to assess the effectiveness of the new healthcare system. The idea of bio-power In order to understand the power relations between the State and individuals, it is essential to investigate the conception of power by Michael Foucault. His perspective changes somewhere between his early work on institutions, that is the history of madness and the birth of the clinic, and his later work on sexuality and governmentality (College of Liberal Arts 2002). However the concept of power, that his work introduced, has set new dimensions to understand modern society. His genealogy of power challenges the assumption that it is a negative, repressive force that operates purely by law and practices of violence (A. Armstrong 2005) claiming that it turns the bodies into a useful and productive workforce. Power shouldnt be considered as a phenomenon of compact domination of a group or a class over another because he strongly believes that power is something that is exercised though an organization working as a chain and it permeates every class of the society either individually o r the population as a whole (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). The shift from the pre-modern to the modern forms of society involves the displacement of the sovereign power by the bio-power. Sovereign power was centralized and coordinated by a sovereign authority who exercised absolute control over the population (A. Armstrong 2005). Namely the body was central to the power upon which a detailed coercion is exercised. Anyone who challenged the monarchs authority triggered his wrath and this took the shape of spectacular public torture satisfying the masses (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). It was the 17th century when a profound transformation in terms of mechanisms of power has undergone in the West. As the growth and care of the population became the primary concern of each state (A. Armstrong 2005), the sovereign authority wasnt sufficient anymore to control the ever-growing population (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005) and the bio-power emerged focusing on the management of life. It was the moment where an art of the human body was born that mak es it more obedient and useful. The violent sovereign power had been replaced by the bio-power which was invested not only in the bodies of the population (Aroni 2008) but also in the soul. This type of power isnt a matter of life but essentially a matter of living where the bodies are regulated, trained, maintained and understood (Nettleton 2006). Instead of being exercised by means of violence celebrating death, bio-power focuses on the birth of life of individuals and populations (Ojakangas 2005) (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). The bio-power concept that Michael Foucault developed is determined as a positive power over people lives which manages, multiplies, and exerts specific control and regularities to the population (Mitrossili 2008) and particularly discipline the human life, death, work, sadness or happiness of the person, mental health, sexual practices and family life (A. Armstrong 2005). So the West entered the era of biopolitics. Its the same period that Foucault goes into a criticism and attaches to bio-power a double meaning; the anatomo-politics (Mitrossili 2008), or as Foucault labels it disciplinary power (A. Armstrong 2005) a form of power that addresses individuals, and bio-politics which concerns the population management (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). These two poles complement each other (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005). Therefore, within the modern disciplinary society, social control can be achieved by means of strategies of normalization or strategies which produce self-regulated, normalized individuals (A. Armstrong 2005). The notion of the disciplinary power becomes clearer in his later work on the history of sexuality, where the notion of the body is central as a field to exercise power in Western countries. In the beginning of the industrialization in the 17th century, the human body had to become available and functional for the capitalism and the paid work. The impoverished, illiterate and unhealthy populations should consist of significant importance as valuable workforce for the governments. The latter created such a population policy to adapt the populations to the capital requirements (Bartky 2007). So they had to discipline in the workplace for the steadily growing production and they had to comply with the minimum standards of hygiene to avoid epidemics. In order to achieve the aforementioned, they should have stable family life. Birth rates, marriage age and sexual maturation suddenly were under strict control and bio-power was a response of that disorganized mass of individuals (Perron, Fl uet and Holmes 2005). Within this concept, the importance of sexuality is displayed in Foucaults work because on the one hand sexuality is related to body maintenance and on the other hand is related to the management of the populations (Aroni 2008). The spread of bio-power is intimately connected to the social science discourses on sex and sexuality on the grounds that these discourses tended to understand sex as an instinctual and biological process. This process has deep links to identity and thus potential effects on the sexual or social behavior of individuals (A. Armstrong 2005). Through a historical research in various communities, Foucault concludes that the conception of sexuality is considered a main expression of the disciplinary power which is central in the modern society. Power, through its directing and normalizing nature, is an instrument of control whereas surveillance and discipline procedures characterize the discourse on the care of the individuals. The establish ment of the health disciplinary technology prepares the individuals for the bio-politics in modern society because the manipulation of individuals through specific practices such as diet and exercise, make the person responsible for maintaining the fitness of his body (discipline of the body) and consequently the bodies of the population (bio-politics) are controlled. Thus according to Sara Lee Bartky, sexuality operates as connecting link between the discipline of the body and the population management (Bartky 2007). As long as individuals are responsible for maintaining and controlling their bodies, new fields of knowledge are created (Aroni 2008). Surveillance and control concepts, adopt a new meaning because individuals will set their own practices such as exercise and healthy nutrition with greater discipline. While the perceptions on the human body changed in the 20th century, their willingness to be controlled towards a proper functioning is the most important feature of the development of a public policy concentrated on health and life. So, the body becomes the objective and the target of the power. The easiest way to grasp the notion of the disciplinary power is to consider what Foucault studies in the discipline and punish. In this work he examines this new mode of surveillance which is best illustrated by Jeremy Benthams Panopticon (D. Armstrong 1983). The Panopticon enables the simultaneous monitoring and observation, certainty, knowledge and individualization. Specifically it was a building designed for complete, constant and anonymous surveillance of its subjects. It was arranged as a ring at the center of which was a tower. The peripheral building was divided into cells. Each cell had two windows, one allowing light to fall on the inmate and another one which allowed a guard to c ontrol the actions of the inmates, like so many cages, so many small theatres in which each actor is alone, perfectly individualized and constantly visible (D. Armstrong 1983). The central tower was equipped with large windows looking at the inner side of the peripheral ring (Foucault 1989). Visibility was a trap. In this model, inmates dont interact with each other and they constantly confronted with the panoptic power (Foucault 1989). Consequently, the design of the Panopticon was such that the guard had total surveillance of the inmates actions. Under this surveillance, never knowing if or by whom one is being observed, the inmates were induced to watch over themselves (Nettleton 2006) and they were trained to resist any impulse of misbehavior for fear of being caught. Indeed, the inmates are offered the illusion that they are permanently monitored. Seen through the lens of the disciplinary power, the Panopticon serves as an architectural model which successfully shows that the enforcement of rules has shifted from the spectacle of the power of violence enacted upon the body of the subjects, to the power of discipline coded into the soul of the prisoners, under the gaze of the Panopticon, focusing not on the punishment of the biological but on the social body (Bartky 2007). This way, the subject becomes the object of knowledge that can be studied and individualized through collecting information about all those prisoners that are contained in it (Nettleton 2006). Ultimately, the Panopticon creates a state where people police themselves unconsciously. Indeed, Benthams goal was to create an architectural idea that, ultimately, could function, on its own (College of Liberal Arts 2002). In this stunning critique of the modern society, Michel Foucault highlighted the way constant surveillance isnt only directed to control the human body, but also to discipline the mind and soul to produce the self-awareness state that the modern society requires (A. Armstrong 2005). These disciplinary practices subject the human body into continuous and constant surveillance and examination aiming to optimize the bodys capabilities, productivity and skills and to foster its usefulness and docility (A. Armstrong 2005): What was then being formed was a policy of coercions that act on the body, a calculated manipulation of its elements, its gestures, its behavior, the human body was entering a machinery of power that explores it, breaks it down and rearranges ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Thus discipline produces subjected and practiced bodies, docile bodies (Foucault 1989). The aforementioned complex surveillance and discipline system aims to create a type of person which urban society needs. That is the creation of a human being obedient, occupied by the feeling of being guilty and adaptable to all modern tactics. Thus, the body turns into central, transformed and improved by different techniques which monitored and analyzed it. This different way of seeing the body is the outcome of surveillance. Screening programmes as an instrument of biopower Since 2003 the European Council has adopted various guidelines according to which cervical cancer should be screened on population based, quality assured, organized screening tests (Anttila, et al. 2009) to achieve greater participation. These recommendations were supported by clinical trial evidence that through organized cytology the mortality rates could be reduced importantly. (Arbyn, et al. 2007) Additional recommendations describe extensively the organization and implementation of the screening tests, recommended screening age groups and screening intervals as well as policies on monitoring and evaluating the screening programmes (Anttila, et al. 2009) (Nicula, et al. 2009). The Pap test, or cytology, is the best known, most reliable and efficient test of secondary prevention (ACCP 2004) to decrease the incidence and the mortality rates by cervical cancer, highly recommended by the EU (Anttila, et al. 2009). Nevertheless, non-organized programmes have also contributed in the de creasing of the mortality and the incidence, but not to the same magnitude. Until the early 60s, few people had heard of cervical cancer in the UK as a public concern and women were screened very rarely. In particular, they were screened only when they visited their GP, or attended obstetric or family planning clinics. This opportunistic screening led to inefficient focus on young women (Peto, et al. 2004) and women at higher risk (Eardley, et al. 1985). Although cervical cancer screening expanded steadily since 1967 at no cost, it failed to achieve high coverage rates and sufficient follow-up of women. Especially after a media storm when a woman having never received her abnormal screening results, died by cervical cancer, the opportunistic screening was overhauled (Raffle 2007). The constantly rising incidence and mortality rates in young cohorts (Arbyn, et al. 2009), boosted the NHS in 1988 to provide organized national programme for cervical cancer prevention (Bastos, et al. 2010). Eventually, it introduced the call and recall system. Since then, screeni ng tests have reduced the average cervical cancer incidence by 33% in the period 1991-1993 and 1998-2000 (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). Using a National Health System list, women of 25-65 years old (Foley, et al. 2011) received a personal invitation in order to be offered free regular Pap smear testing, HPV testing or liquid based cytology by GPs or nurses (Linos and Riza 2000) to detect and treat cervical abnormalities. Even though screening tests were administered nationally, the personal invitations were managed regionally. (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). This -call and recall-system was organized by local authorities, the Primary Care Trusts. These authorities were responsible for reminding the eligible women of the region by personal invitations their regular screening test (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006) with a recommended interval from 3 to 5 years, depending on the womans age (Bunn 2008)(Cancer Research UK, 2012) and the regional authority (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). In order to ensure high participation of women in the screening tests, in 1990 a system of payments for the GPs was launched, according to wh ich, the payment was received only if women have been screened in the previous 5 years (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). This system demonstrated high participation levels where almost 80% of eligible women had been screened in the last years (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). The screening coverage rose from 42% in 1988 to 85%, 6 years later (Arbyn, et al. 2009) and the overall incidence of cervical cancer in the female population of 20-29 years old shows that it has declined significantly from the onset of the organized screening tests up until 1991 (Foley, et al. 2011). For that reason, the UK still applies this call and recall system in a target population of 14 million of women (Linos and Riza 2000) aged 25-64 years old (in Scotland from age 20) (Bunn 2008). Besides, cervical cancer screening is, and always has been, free provided and the screening costs were administered by the NHS (Whynesa, Philips and Avis 2007). However, the Pap smear method doesnt test for cervical cancer; instead, it detects, (Bastos, et al. 2010) cell abnormalities which, if left untreated, can potentially lead to cancer. In order to perform the Pap smear method, the UK uses advanced laboratory quality assurance, training and performance standards of reporting (Canfel, Sitas and Beral 2006). Today, more that 3.5 million women in the UK are screened every year, the vast majority of which as a reply to the call-recall system (Whynesa, Philips and Avis 2007). Another significant proportion still is screened opportunistically. Nevertheless, it is surprising though that recent d ata demonstrate a profound increase in the incidence rates by 2.2% between 1992 and 2006 (Foley, et al. 2011) (Peto, et al. 2004). This increasing trend hints that HPV epidemic might be increased in the future. In addition to screening tests, the HPV vaccines were introduced in many countries globally including the UK. The rapid approval of such vaccines by the European Medicines Agency (EMEA) demonstrated that decision-makers in the UK were aware of what the outcome of such a prevention strategy would be and that the reduction in the incidence of the disease would be significant. Indeed, the national HPV immunization programme prevents from cervical cancer almost 400 deaths per year (Martin, et al. 2011). In 2007, a VENICE report was conducted which, even though provided recommendation in Austria and Germany it questioned the benefits of the vaccination over the benefits of screening (Raffle 2007). In the beginning of 2008 the Department of Health in UK announced the inclusion of the HPV vaccination in the national immunization programme (Bastos, et al. 2010). The Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunization (JCVI) in collaboration with the Department of Health decided to vaccinate girl s aged 12-13 years old and additionally to promote vaccination of females only up to 18 years old because the vaccination of the female population older than 18 years would not consist of cost-effective (Bunn 2008). Male population isnt included in the immunization programme for economic reasons (Martin, et al. 2011). Scotland was the first of the four UK countries which introduced the HPV vaccination in September 2008 at the beginning of the school year for all 12-13 year old girls (Gasparini and Panato 2009). The power in the healthcare sector relies on the examinations (Perron, Fluet and Holmes 2005) so screening programmes could be considered the vehicle of disciplinary technology. Consequently, the organized screening programmes attract the Foucauldian approach because they are a particular version of the panoptic idea (Heyes 2006). The organized screening tests operate as the Panopticon building. This surveillance system aims to set the entire female population under a continual control and to ensure that it is subjected with respect to the requirements of the state; namely the bio-politics. Furthermore, Foucault suggests that discipline depends on the relationship between the body and its observing gaze rather than on the population. The perfect disciplinary apparatus would make it possible for a single gaze to see everything constantly, he notes (D. Armstrong 1983). Namely, discipline includes the strict monitoring. Diagnostic programmes, intending to promote health and prevent from a disease are the best examples to illustrate their relation with bio-politics. With the call and recall notification women are invited to arrange an appointment with their GP or their primary care

Aging:The Original Human Condition Essay -- Geriatrics Health Papers

Aging:The Original Human Condition Aging is a phenomena we are all familiar with, a trait characteristic of all humankind, in fact, of all living organisms. What are the effects of aging, especially those which go beyond the biological aspects and effect the social aspects of changing roles, seniority, and treatment of the aged? What was the original human condition before high-tech medical interventions redefined death and dying, before the industrial age changed the nature of the nuclear and extended family? Going back still farther, what can the behavior of chimpanzees tell us about the origins of our responses to the aging of those around us? Having worked in the field of geriatrics, in a nursing home setting, I have had the opportunity to be involved in the direct care of the elderly. Over a period of time, I have come to accept living one's last years in a nursing home as an eventual "normal" response to the aging process. As a result of this study, I anticipate having an enlarged perspective and an enhanced sensitivity to the psychosocial aspects of aging. Aging Defined The Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology (1996) was a helpful source to gain a definition on aging which includes the concepts of life course, seniority, and treatment of the aged. Aging can be measured by common biological content: proportion of the maximum fife span one has lived, performance on a series of physiological tests which index biological age, and patterns of the age­specific risk of mortality. Despite this universal biological content, it is notable that aging takes on a variety of forms, many which show regular associations with aspects of culture. Rather than focusing on age, it may be more appropriate to review the life cy... ...k, NY: Harper Collins College Publishers Collier's Encyclopedia. 1983. New York, NY: Macmillan Educational Company Goodall, Jane. 1990. Through a Window: My 30 Years with Chimpanzees of Gombe. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company Handbook of North American Indians. 1984. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Semour­Smith, Charlotte. 1986. Dictionary of Anthropology. Boston, MA: G.K. Hall and Company Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology. 1996. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company Marshall, Loma. 1976. The !Kung of Nyae Nyae. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Dentan, Robert Knox. 1968. The Semai: A Nonviolent People of Malaya. Orlando, FL: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Maxwell, Robert J. and Phillip Silverman. 1989. "Geronticide". In The Content of Culture: Studies in Honor of John M. Roberts. New Haven, CN.: HRAF Press

The Gambia :: essays research papers

The Gambia, translated from the French La Gambia was first colonized by Portugal in 1445 on what was later named St. Mary’s Island. Subsequently, the area was visited by France and later, Britain who began to build strong trading posts along it’s western shores. In the 1700’s The Gambia was proclaimed to be part of Britain. By 1969 The Gambia became a republic within the British commonwealth of nations. In 1982 it was declared a republic in what was later declared the Senegambian conference. The Gambia stated its independence from Britain and the Province of Senegal. The Gambia then established The People’s Progressive Party led by, Sir Dawda Kairaba Jawara , until the change of government in 1994. Today The Gambia lives under a multi-party system. The Constitution of the Second Republic of The Gambia provides elections by making everyone over the age of 18 pay suffrage. Every five years the people elect 45 candidates that make up the county’s Natio nal Assembly. Four parties made up the 1996 elections. The Alliance for Patriotic Re- Orientation and Construction (APRC), The United Democratic Party (UDP), The National Reconciliation Party (NRP), and The People’s Democratic Organization for Independence and Socialism (PDOIS). On October 18, 1996 Yahya Jammeh (ADRC) won 56% of the votes to become the new president of The Gambia. The flag consist of three horizontal stripes. From top to bottom they are: red, blue, then green. Sorry I couldn’t get a color print on the flag pictured below. TOPOGRAPHY: The Gambia is a long narrow country focusing around the central river that gave them their name. The Gambia river is 300 miles long inside The Gambia and is about 3 miles wide at most points. The Gambia has a total land area of 4,000 miles. It is relatively flat with few mountains and has an inward sloping bowl shape from where the Gambia river once covered. The Gambia river opens into the ocean at the western most tip of The Gambia. The capital, Banjul, is located near the inlet to the river and is a very large city with many tourist attractions and shops to buy stuff in. The Gambia is located completely within the county of Senegal from which it won it’s independence. The river is navigable up to 241km inland. After that point is impossible to further follow the river without the aid of a specialized boat for such a trip.

Dr. Stephen Hawking; Man Of Mystery :: essays research papers

Dr. Stephen Hawking has been considered to be more brilliant then Einstein. Dr. Hawking was born on January 8 1942 in Oxford, England on the 300th anniversary of Galileo’s death. Is this a coincidence? After his studies at St. Albans School, he attended University College, Oxford. He wanted to study Mathematics, but because it was unavailable at Oxford, he concentrated on Physics and earned a degree in Natural Science three years later. Stephen went on to Cambridge to do research in Cosmology. After attaining his Ph.D., he became a Professorial Fellow at Gonville and Caius College. He left the Institute of Astronomy to become a professor at the Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics at Cambridge. He has held the post of Lacasian Professor of Mathematics since 1979. In the early 1960’s, Stephen Hawking was diagnosed with the dreadful disease Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (A.L.S.), an incurable degenerative neuromuscular disease, also known as Lou Gerh ig’s Disease. He has been paralyzed unable to use every muscle in his body. The only muscles he has use of are those around his eyes. This explains why Hawking has become a theoretician rather than a â€Å"hands-on† scientist. He spends hour after hour in his wheelchair pondering complex ideas and formulating mind bobbling equations in his head. Dr. Hawking’s work is primarily in the field of general relativity and in particular on the physics of black holes. He uses his theory on the origin of black holes to help explain the creation of the universe. In 1971 he suggested the formation (following the big bang), of numerous objects containing as much as 1,000,000,000 tons of mass but occupying only the space of a proton. These objects, called mini- black holes, are unique in that because of their immense mass and gravity, they are ruled by the laws if relativity, while their minute size requires that the laws of quantum mechanics apply to them also. In 1974, Hawking proposed that, in accordance with the predications of quantum theory, black holes emit subatomic particles until they exhaust all their energy and finally explode. Hawking’s work spurred efforts to theoretically delineate the properties of black holes. It was previously thought that nothing could be learned about black holes. Now we know that each bl ack hole starts out as a star about ten times the size of the sun. Over time, the star burns all its nuclear fuel and explodes.

Apush Sample Frqs Essay

1. The French and Indian War (1754-1763) altered the relationship between Britain and its North American colonies. Assess this change with regard to TWO of the following in the period between 1763 and 1775. Land acquisition ​Politics ​Economics 2. Evaluate the extent to which the Articles of Confederation were effective in solving the problems that confronted the new nation. 3. Although the power of the national government increased during the early republic, this development often faced serious opposition. Compare the motives and effectiveness of those opposed to the growing power of the national government in TWO of the following. Whiskey Rebellion, 1794 Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798-1799 Hartford Convention, 1814-1815 Nullification Crisis, 1832-1833 4. Analyze the contributions of TWO of the following in helping establish a stable government after the adoption of the Constitution. John Adams ​Thomas Jefferson ​George Washington (2002) 5. Analyze the extent to which TWO of the following influenced the development of democracy between 1820 and 1840. Jacksonian economic policy Changes in electoral politics Second Great Awakening Westward movement 6. The Jacksonian Period (1824-1848) has been celebrated as the era of the â€Å"common man.† To what extent did the period live up to its characterization? Consider TWO of the following in your response. Economic development ​Politics ​Reform movements 7. In what ways did the Second Great Awakening in the North influence TWO of the following? Abolitionism Temperance The cult of domesticity Utopian communities 8. Although Americans perceived Manifest Destiny as a benevolent movement, it was in fact an aggressive imperialism pursued at the expense of others. Assess the validity of this statement with specific reference to American expansionism in the 1840’s. 9. Analyze the effectiveness of political compromise in reducing sectional tensions in the period 1820-1861. 10. Discuss the political, economic, and social reforms introduced in the South between 1864 and 1877. To what extent did these reforms survive the Compromise of 1877? 11. Analyze the impact of any TWO of the following on the American industrial worker between 1865 and 1900. Government actions ​Labor Unions ​Immigration ​Technology changes 12. Analyze the reasons for the emergence of the Populist movement in the late nineteenth century.

Environmental Science in Today’s World Essay

Humans so dominate today’s world that there is no ecosystem on earth that has not been influenced to a greater or lesser degree of human activities. And, as long as humans remain on earth, such influence will not end. Sustainability will depend on learning to channel our efforts so that we play a positive supporting role as opposed to a destructive role toward ecosystems (Nebel & Wright, 1993). Environmental risk is a reality of today’s world. The seemingly endless supply of synthetic chemicals, consumer goods, energy, and waste create new risks through chemical contamination, pollution, and environmental degradation. Environmental disasters such as chemical spills or explosions threaten millions of people living in the vicinity of manufacturing or storage facilities. The uncertain risks of global warming and ozone depletion loom ahead. A central factor of environmental risk is that it is usually involuntary. People do not choose to ingest chemical pollutants such as pesticides or industrial solvents in their food and water, to undergo workplace exposures to dangerous chemicals, to breathe polluted air, or to experience radiation exposure from nuclear fallout or faulty nuclear power plants. These environmental risks pose a unique problem to regulators charged with protecting the public health. Limited information may be available on the health effects of these risks. Consequently, in an effort to protect the public’s health, various government agencies study these potential hazards to determine the level of risk they pose. This effort to understand these risks, and to quantify their impact on human health, is the field of risk analysis (Moore, 2002). The scale of human occupation and transformation of the environment is now truly global. The adverse health effects of this ignorance may have been limited, as the environmental damage was on a local scale. However, in today’s world our activities are having an impact at a global scale, and global environmental change will become a major theme in public health research, social policy and development, and political advocacy in the 21st century. The conceptualization of the environment as a global public good for health should go some way not only in increasing an appreciation for this heritage and dependency, but should also enhance the interface between research and policy. This increased awareness and interface between key stakeholders might lead to effective action to ensure a sustainable future for current and future generations (Hester & Harrison, 2002).

Calyx & Corolla Case Analysis

1. The strength of the Calyx & Corolla formula is that they enhance the delivering speed so that customers get fresher flowers. Also, it lowers the cost of delivery from growers to C & C, from wholesellers to retailers, and from retailers to customers. But there are also problems in the formula. For example, it is hard to control the quality of the products. C & C has to monitor the growers and Fed, and spend extra money to maintain the high quality of the products. . Calyx & Corolla has been successful because they make delivery more efficient, which is to deliver flowers directly from growers to customers so that the plants are fresher. Also, they accurately position themselves and send catalogues to people who are likely to buy flowers. It’s an efficient way to market without a large amount of cost. Third, they developed business partners to promote selling. 3.The large growers like Sunbay Company also distribute and sell flowers themselves. They also buy flowers from other growers. Thus it is hard to control the quality of the flowers they provide. The large growers like Sunbay Company are both partners and competitors because they also sell flowers to customers. 4. They are growing the business by launching an advertising campaign. They will advertise on television emphasizing the longevity and freshness of the lowers.They will insert mini-catalogs into newspaper supplements and magazines. 5. The company is customer-oriented. They directly link consumers with growers in order to reduce the time it took to deliver, thus ensure the freshness and longevity of the consumers. They will not let flowers frozen outside the door in the cold days if they fail to deliver it, because it this will not encourage consumers to buy flowers from them again.They send catalogs regularly and change their banquets seasonally to meet consumers’ needs. All they have done is to keep the â€Å"life-time† customers. They are not only selling flowers, they are se lling good service as well. 6. It’s easy for customers to find what they want through the website, because the company has provided different ways of categorizing the bouquets. Customers can decide what kind of flowers they need according to different situations. It’s very customer-oriented.

Henrietta Lacks

The characters from the book, â€Å"The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks† become attached to objects that are meaningful to them. It is noticed that a certain object had a significant meaning by analyzing the scene and the character. Dr. Geys assistant, Mary described Henrietta Lacks red nail polish on her toes. She described Henrietta being an actual woman, something Mary never thought of. Henrietta’s relatives described Henrietta with her red nail polish. The red nail polish was a meaningful object to Henrietta because it completed her. Dr.Gey was attached to Hela cells once he made the incredible observation. He didn't experiment for money, he genuinely did it for science. He sent the Hela cells for other scientists to experience the cells for themselves. He changed science for his genuine passion for it. Perhaps the most interesting character, Deborah Lacks, was attached to a few things. While Deborah was with Rebecca, she showed her the contents in her purse. She c arried everything she had about her mother with her. There were videotapes, documentaries, articles, and a few birthday cards that Deborah bought for her mother, Henrietta.Deborah was attached to these items because that was all she knew about her mother. In a way, that was how she felt connected to Henrietta. A few days later when Rebecca was with Deborah, Rebecca noticed a folder on her pillow. They were Henrietta's medical folders. Deborah wouldn't let Rebecca touch her mothers medical folder. Unlike all the other items Deborah let Rebecca see, Henrietta's medical folder was different. And it clearly had a different, more significant meaning than the other items. Henrietta Lacks Henrietta Lacks Cells taken from a young African American woman in 1951 helped scientists cure polio. Cells from the same woman contributed to scientific advantages in cancer, gene mapping, and even the atom bomb. The mother of five did not life to know her cells had such importance. She never knew, in fact, that they were being harvested. Today’s medical advances are based on practices that people now consider unethical, whereas back when Henrietta live, they did not even think twice about ethics. Henrietta Lacks did not know the cells taken from her could possibly be used to develop a multimillion-dollar medical industry.In an even crueler twist of fate, her descendants lived in poverty without access to affordable health care. The book The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks by Rebecca Skloot, tells the story of a women, Henrietta Lacks, and her family. Ms. Lacks was treated for cervical cancer at John’s Hopkins Hospital in 1951. Her malignant cervical cells were harves ted and distributed to become the first â€Å"immortal† cell line widely used for scientific research, including their use in the development of the polio vaccine. The story tells what happened after Ms.Lacks’ death to her family, a poor African American family living in Maryland. A family who, today, would be considered poor. The story brings up key ethical issues of biomedical research, which were evolving during that era (Skloot, Rebecca). Henrietta Lacks died of an aggressive cervical cancer that invaded virtually her entire body in 1951. A common practice at the time, samples of cancer cells were taken for study. Some cells were taken by a researcher who was attempting to develop immortal cell lines for scientific purposes.In the 1950’s, the practice of taking routine tissue samples without consent from patients was not uncommon, and anonymising the source wasn’t a main concern. HeLa cells and the concerns that surrounded them touched on several issu es in medicine. One was the issue of using tissue samples without consulting patients, many of whom would freely donate if asked. Changes in how such samples are taken and handled, and in the processes used to collect consent, have improved the use of informed consent in research.Patients submitting biopsies for diagnostic purposes, for example, might be asked if they are willing to donate cells to research (Smith, S. E. ). if a doctor wanted to diagnose, treat, experiment or keep body parts, that’s what he did. Patients never questioned doctors they were trusted implicitly. Consent was conferred by the simple step of showing up in a doctor’s office. Today, we know we need to understand and ask questions, and then our consent is necessary legally. Further, we understand the importance of withholding consent until we feel fully informed about the benefits and consequences of what that consent will mean.There were not conformed consent laws until recently. Informed conse nt is more than simply getting a patient to sign a written consent form. It is a process on communication between a patient and physician that results in the patients’ authorization or agreement to undergo a specific medical intervention (Informed Consent). Since everyone has different preferences, there will always be differences in the treatment of care among people. This becomes a problem when physicians have a bias against certain races and ethics.As a physician, all treatment options should be discussed and equally available to patients, regardless of their race or ethnicity which results in informed consent on the patients’ behalf. There was a lack of respect, or an inability to communicate, in both directions, between blacks and doctors back in the 1850’s. Skin color, and the problems that can result from low income, lack of education, and illiteracy; the inability to read, and/or understand the English language also contributed to the mistreatment of bla cks.Patients overcome those challenges by finding a respectful doctor, or a supporter to help the,. Back when Henrietta lived, that was not easy to fins. Differences in healthcare outcomes can result from the history of different races too. Henrietta was treated with radiation, which left her body burned and blackened. She and her family asked themselves many times whether the treatment was really helping her – but they never considered asking the doctor to do something different, make a different recommendation, or even just to stop. Skloot, Rebecca) today, empowered patients know that they can insert themselves into all decision-making about their own medical care. They can and should discuss any and all protocols to make decisions as part of their own healthcare team. And, empowered patients know that if they want to, they can say, â€Å"No. † In conclusion, informed consent was not needed when Henrietta lived; therefore scientists took her cells without her knowing . A doctor did what HE wanted to do. But today, we now know that consent is legality.Any treatments should be discussed with the patient regardless of their race or their illness. Henrietta was mistreated, her body was burned, but her and her family did not want to question the doctor in fear or being looked down on. But today patients know that they have the right to know exactly what is being done to them, and can ask any questions they feel necessary. If it were not for the doctors and scientists that had taken Henrietta’s cells, we today, would not have the advancements in healthcare that we do. Henrietta Lacks The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks Introduction The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks is written by Rebecca Skloot, who is an award winning science writer. The story is of a young black women, Henrietta Lacks, who was diagnosed with cancer in 1951, at the John Hopkins Hospital. Cells were taken from her body during her examinations, without her knowledge. They were used to develop the first immortal cell line. Her cells became very important for the development of vaccines. Her family, however, has not received any benefit and still cannot even afford health insurance.They do not even know that the cells belong to Henrietta. This has raised many ethical questions on the research that has been done using Henrietta's cells. Discussion Henrietta's life had not been an easy one. Long before she got ill with cancer; her father abandoned her in childhood. She was married at a very early age. At the age of 14; she was a mother. She then moved to the Turner Station with her husband, who was not so faithful to her. At Turner Station, she and her family faced a life of segregation and poverty. Despite all the difficulties that she faced in her life, she still remained an enthusiastic person.She had a spirit that was not able to break. She was described by her friends as a person having a cheerful disposition. She was an also a person who was quick to laugh. She would also go out dancing with her cousin Sadie. The most important and strong side of Henrietta was her motherhood. Her cousin, Sadie also suspected that she delayed seeking medical attention, because she was afraid that it might affect her fertility and prevent her from having more children. She was extremely heart broken when she realized that the surgery has made her infertile.She was angry and sad at the fact that the doctors did not tell her beforehand that what the surgery would do to her. When her condition worsened, the doctors told her husband not to bring her children to visit her. This made her even m ore heart broken and devastated. She and her family, especially her children, led a very difficult life. Even after her death, her family and her children were not told about the cells of Henrietta being used in research. They were not given nay benefit, whatsoever, of the research on her cells and the huge mounts of money generated from it. The Lacks family is so poor even now that they cannot afford even life insurance. Henrietta's daughter, Deborah, did not know anything at all about the importance and the use of her mother's cells. She was devastated to learn about the cells of her mother. She was filled with many questions that nobody was able to answer. She was curious to know that if her mother's cells were so important and have helped medical science so much. Why were her children not even able to afford health insurance for themselves?Henrietta was a very sociable person. She would have allowed the John Hopkins institute to carry out research on her cells. She was a person who was very close to her family. She would have wanted the John Hopkins Institute to take care of her family and children if they used her cells. She would never have wanted her family to be treated the way they were treated back then and even now. Conclusion Henrietta was a very strong woman. Her contribution to medical science has been exceptional. However, her family should also have been given benefits. Henrietta Lacks Racist Experiments Racism is immortal just like Henrietta’s cells it will always be around. People would do anything to be the first to discover something. At the end of the day it’s all about the money. The Mississippi appendectomies and the Tuskegee experiments were similar in the way that the government forced treatment upon minorities without consent. Henrietta’s case was different than Mississippi and Tuskegee because the doctor in Johns Hopkins didn’t experiment on her actual body but on her cells without consent.Henrietta’s case the Tuskegee experiments and the Mississippi Appendectomies are all different cases in different locations but serve the same purpose which is to take advantage of poor and uneducated minorities to further medical research. The Tuskegee Experiments and the Mississippi Appendectomies were both horrible cases and dealt with lots of racism and ignorance towards people who didn’t know any better. The purpose of The Tuskegee experiments was to see how syphilis affected blacks as opposed to whites.The treatment was to basically come in get injected with syphilis if you didn’t already have and the doctors would watch how you die. The people in these experiments were poor and uneducated black males who were coned into giving their life away. The doctors in this experiment lured the test subjects in the saying they were getting treated for â€Å"Bad Blood†. These racist and disturbing experiments lasted for 40 years between 1932-1972.The purpose of the Mississippi Appendectomies was to sterilize America of bad genes meaning anyone women who was mentally challenge, a criminal, Black, Alcoholic, etc†¦ would get sterilized so they couldn’t reproduce anymore. Doctors figured that in order to stop mentally challenged blacks alcoholics etc†¦ from walking this earth is to sterilize them and make sure their genes don’t flow in the gene pool. The treatment for these ap pendectomies was horrible it was just blacks that were treated it also Indians and poor whites.The test subjects were all sterilized against their will and without their knowing. These appendectomies were racist and cruel. More than half of the women in Mississippi were sterilized. These treatments lasted for about 33 years between 1930s and 1963. Henrietta Lacks case was different than Mississippi and Tuskegee in some ways. In Henrietta’s case the doctors took her cells from her cervix but like in the Mississippi and Tuskegee cases they took them without Henrietta’s permission and launched a multimillion-dollar medical industry after she died.The purpose of taking Henrietta’s cells was to just run a couple tests until they died but they ended up living and growing. Instead of telling Henrietta and her family what they have been doing the doctors kept the discovery to themselves. When the discovery of the immortal cells because known every doctor got their hands on them and started running experiments on them, sending the cells to space, running test on the cells to find a cure to aids and cervical cancer etc†¦Racism wasn’t far from this case the doctor in Henrietta’s case figured that telling her what they were doing would only confuse her and her family even more so they just figure to not tell her or her family at all. This case started in 1951 and the research on the cells still goes on till the present. Racism hovers of this country and is always in the backs of everyone’s minds. Henrietta’s case the Tuskegee experiments and the Mississippi Appendectomies are all different cases in different locations but serve the same purpose which is to take advantage of poor and uneducated minorities to further medical research.In Tuskegee doctors took advantage of uneducated black males to find an answer to a question. The Mississippi appendectomies sterilized innocent uneducated and poor females because the gover nment was trying to wipe out â€Å"bad â€Å"genes† and in the Henrietta lacks case doctors took her cells without consent, found out they were immortal and launched and multimillion-dollar medical industry. In the end it is indeed all about the money.