Comparing leadership styles and techniques

Comparing leadership styles and techniques This study will show and conclude whether or not this statement is indeed accurate or just another theoretical belief or ideology amongst between theorist. In this essay we will look at the meaning of both management and leadership, how they differ in concept and in style, and finally conclude whether or not this statement is indeed accurate. What is leadership? Moorhead and Griffin (1998) define leadership as both a process and property. They say, as a process leadership involves the use of non-coercive influence to direct and coordinates the activities of group members to meet a goal, and a property they describe leadership as a set of characteristics attributed to those who those who are perceived to use such influence successfully. According to Moorhead Griffin (1998), Management requires an understanding of human behavior, to help managers better comprehend those at different levels in the organization, those at the same level, those in other organization, and themselves. Management is the planning, organizing, leading and controlling of organizational resources both effectively and efficiently in order to ultimately achieve goals set out by an organization (Moorhead Griffin, 1998; Adair, 2003). Differences between leadership and management: Adair (2003) says, Leadership and management are not the same. In industry and commerce they should go together. In government we often think of political leadership and public service management, but the latter also requires high-quality leadership. Adair (2003) then continues to list the following; Leadership is about giving direction, building teams and inspiring others by example and word. You can be appointed a manager but you are not a leader until your personality and character, your knowledge and your skill in performing the functions of leadership are recognized and accepted by the others involved. This is a very fundamental difference. (Adair, 2003; Moorhead Griffin, 1998) Leadership and change go together. Managing in the form of running an organization is more appropriate where there is not much change going on. When change is endemic, as it often is nowadays, managers must learn how to lead it. Pg 71 Managing entails the proper and efficient use of resources- good administration. Good leaders care about administration, the less good ones dont. Management has the overtone of carrying out objectives laid down by someone else. Moreover, there is nothing in the concept of management which implies inspiration, creating teamwork when it isnt there, or setting an example. When it is the case that inspiration and teamwork exist, you may well have managers who are in effect leaders, especially if they are the source of the inspiration. But it is unfortunately more often the case that management does not ring bells when it comes to people. Other distinctive differences pointed out by (Adair, 2003) include Direction: A leader will find a ways forward. He or she will generate a sense of direction. That may involve identifying new objectives, new products or services and new markets Inspiration: Leadership is linked to inspiration. The words and example of a leader kindle motivation Building teams: A leader tends to think naturally in terms of team. Groups of individuals are transformed into teams. Equally, teams tend to look for leaders rather than bosses. Example: Leadership is example. A leader will have his or her own output or direct contribution to the common task, thereby leading from the front Acceptance: You can be appointed a manager, but you are not really a leader until your appointment is ratified in the hearts and minds of those who work with you. An article by Murray, C. (2010) states and lists the following, the managers job is to plan, organize and coordinate. The leaders job is to inspire and motivate. In his 1989 book On Becoming a Leader, Warren Bennis composed a list of the differences: The manager administers; the leader innovates. The manager is a copy; the leader is an original. The manager maintains; the leader develops. The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people. The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust. The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective. The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why. The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leaders eye is on the horizon. The manager imitates; the leader originates. The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it. The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person. The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing. Moorhead Griffin (1998) set out the following table to illustrate the distinction between management and leadership. Activity Management Leadership Creating an agenda Planning and Budgeting. Establishing details steps and timetables for achieving needed results; allocating the resources necessary to make those needed results happen Establishing direction. Developing a vision of the future, often the distant future, and strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision Developing a human network for achieving the agenda Organizing and staffing. Establishing some structure for accomplishing plan requirements, staffing that structure with individuals, delegating responsibility and authority for carrying out the plan, providing policies and procedures to help guide people, and creating methods or systems to monitor implementation Aligning people. Communicating the direction by words and deeds to all those whose cooperation may be needed to influence the creation of teams and coalitions that understand the vision and strategies and accept their validity Executing plans Controlling and problem solving. Monitoring results vs. plan in some detail, identifying deviations, and then planning and organizing to solve these problem Motivating and inspiring. Energizing people to overcome major political, bureaucratic, and resource barriers to change by satisfying very basic, but often unfulfilled, human needs Outcomes Produces a degree of predictability and order and has the potential to consistently produce major results expected by various stakeholders (e.g. .for customers, always being on time; for stockholders, being on budget) Produces change, often to a dramatic degree, and has the potential to produce extremely useful change (e.g. , new products that customers want, new approaches to lobar relations that help make a firm more competitive) Another way of which leadership and management could be distinguished is through different styles, Management has three main categories of styles: autocratic, paternalistic and democratic. Autocratic (or authoritarian) managers like to make all the important decisions and closely supervise and control workers. Managers do not trust workers and simply give orders (one-way communication) that they expect to be obeyed. This approach derives from the views of Taylor as to how to motivate workers and relates to McGregors theory X view of workers. This approach has limitations (as highlighted by other motivational theorists such as Mayo and Herzberg) but it can be effective in certain situations. For example. When quick decisions are needed in a company (e.g. in a time of crises), when controlling large numbers of low skilled workers. Paternalistic managers give more attention to the social needs and views of their workers. Managers are interested in how happy workers feel and in many ways they act as a father figure (pater means father in Latin). They consult employees over issues and listen to their feedback or opinions. The manager will however make the actual decisions (in the best interests of the workers) as they believe the staffs still need direction and in this way it is still somewhat of an autocratic approach. The style is closely linked with Mayos Human Relation view of motivation and also the social needs of Maslow. Democratic style of management will put trust in employees and encourage them to make decisions. They will delegate to them the authority to do this (empowerment) and listen to their advice. This requires good two-way communication and often involves democratic discussion groups, which can offer useful suggestions and ideas. Managers must be willing to encourage leadership skills in subordinates. The ultimate democratic system occurs when decisions are made based on the majority view of all workers. However, this is not feasible for the majority of decisions taken by a business- indeed one of the criticisms of this style is that it can take longer to reach a decision. This style has close links with Herzbergs motivators and Maslows higher order skills and also applies to McGregors theory Y view of workers. Leadership styles include the following Transformational leadership Is the set of abilities that allow the leader to recognize the need for change, to create a vision to guide that change, and to execute that change effectively. (Moorhead Griffin, 1998) Charismatic leadership A charismatic leadership style is a type of influence based on the leaders personal charisma. (Moorhead Griffin, 1998) Conclusion: Despite all these differences one has to take note that in this new economy its nearly impossible to distinguish between the two as they both overlap one another and work hand in hand, in other words they complement each other, as Murray A, (2010) points out that there was a time when the calling of the manager and that of the leader could be separated. A foreman in an industrial-era factory probably didnt have to give much thought to what he was producing or to the people who were producing it. His or her job was to follow orders, organize the work, assign the right people to the necessary tasks, coordinate the results, and ensure the job got done as ordered. The focus was on efficiency. But in the new economy, where value comes increasingly from the knowledge of people, and where workers are no longer undifferentiated cogs in an industrial machine, management and leadership are not easily separated. People look to their managers, not just to assign them a task, but to define for th em a purpose. And managers must organize workers, not just to maximize efficiency, but to nurture skills, develop talent and inspire results. But if pressed for and answer one would have to agree with the statement as we are facing difficult times with the worldwide recession and collapse of economies (i.e. Greece, Iceland), and where there is great uncertainty amongst workers, you will find that people are looking out for leaders to navigate them through these troubled times, so there on would justifiably concur with the rationale. As (Adair, 2003) states, Although a natural leader instinctively tries to change and improve things, his or her efforts will, not bear much fruit unless external and internal change is effecting the organization- technological, social, economic, political and cultural change. Industry and commerce, and for that matter public services too, must now operate in a climate of almost constant change, stronger international competition and higher uncertainty. All that explains why the concept of leadership has once again come to the fore. Leaders like change; its in their chosen element. Managers, by contrast, have traditionally preferred to run organizations as machines. They are happiest in a stead state environment where nothing is rocking the boat.

Overview Of Motivation And Its Theories Business Essay

Overview Of Motivation And Its Theories Business Essay Motivation has been a complex concept to define, because there are many theoretical approach towards the nature of human beings and about what can be known about people (Pinder 1998, p. 11). There are different perceptions and definitions of motivation. Sims (2002, p.55), defined motivation as the satisfying of the inner needs through actions and behaviours. According to him, motivation includes various mental and physical drives, combined with the proper environment that guides people to act in a certain way. According to Robbins and Coulter (1998), motivation may be defined as the willingness to put forward high levels of effort toward need. From this theory, Mullins (1996) has come up with the definition where he assumes that every person is unique and this uniqueness is demonstrated in one way or another via the various theories which influence workers control and behaviours towards a particular goal. He also identifies two factors about what gets people activated (arousal) and secondly, and what drives people to engage in the desires behaviour or choice of behaviour. The set of processes that arouse, direct, and maintain human behaviour towards attaining some goal. (Greenberg Barron, 2003, p. 190) On the other hand, Rabey (2000) defined motivation as a reciprocal process. We will give you something you want if you give us something we want. From the above definitions, it can be observed that every author has defined motivation from different viewpoint but they all have tried conveying the same message, that is, the individuals drive to do something at a particular time. Halepota (2005, p. 16) defines motivation as a persons active participation and commitment to achieve the prescribed results. From this theory, there is no single strategy that can generate guaranteed positive results all the time, since different strategies produce different outcomes at different times. It can be concluded from the above definitions that, motivation in general, is more or less mainly concerned with the different aspects that moves, leads, and drives human action or inaction over a given period of time. In other words, there is an invisible force that drives people to do something in return. Evolution of Motivation Theories The theories about employee motivation have greatly varied over the past century, from scientific management through the human relations movement, to the human resource approach. Scientific management: According to the scientific management theory workers see work as a pain and money is their main concern. Thus, it assumes that people will work hard and behave sensibly to gain their own personal objectives, that is, to maximise their own income first, rather than putting their effort towards the organisational objectives as priority. Human relations movement: According to this school of thought, managers should take into consideration the social aspect in the working environment because employees value social belongingness much more than money. Bendix (1956, p. 294), summarised this revolution by taking into consideration that failure to treat workers as human beings is regarded as the main cause of low morale, lack of interest and confusion. Thus, the Human relations model to this problem has come up with creating opportunities for teamwork and nurturing closer relations between management and employees. Human resource approach: This approach assumes that the Human Resource department plays an important role in the implementation of different types of rewards system in an organisation inorder to maintain the employee and organisation morale. According to Steer et al. (1996), the human resource model, human beings are motivated by a set of complex factors, including, money, need for affiliation, need for achievement, and desire for meaningful work. Therefore, it is the managements responsibility to learn how to tap such resources as employees are the reservoirs of potential talent. Scientific Management As per the Scientific Management theory (1911) which was proposed by Gilbreth and Taylor, the relationship between worker and the management is based on the low trust. However, he believed that higher salaries may contribute to cooperation between them. However this form of management is no longer as scientific as Taylor first suggested. Today workers are considered much more as humans than as commodities, as new management approaches focus on the human side of employment relations. Mayo and Hawthorne Studies According to the Mayo and the Hawthorne studies (1927-1932), human relations approach to management has become the main focus of managers (Bedeian, 1993). It was concluded that employees exert greater effort at work when they were not bossed by or being closely supervised by anyone. As such workers developed an increased sense of responsibility by themselves rather than expecting management imposing their set of discipline on workers. Moreover, interpersonal relationships and informal work groups greatly influence output, in the sense that workers felt themselves to be contributing freely and without force. Mayos conclusions were that money was a less influential factor and that group influences extensively affect individual behaviour towards output. In addition to this, workers were better motivated when they were having their social needs met at work (Robbins, 1998). Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor (1960) had further contributed to the study of work motivation with his opposing motivational theories as Theory X and Theory Y. According to the theory X (McGregor 1989, p. 315), it is the management responsibility to set elements of rewards in order to motivate people and modifying their behaviours to fit the needs of the organisation. Thus, without the interference of management people would be be passive-even resistant- to organisational needs. Thus, workers must be persuaded, rewarded, punished, and their activities should be controlled. Conversely, the Maslows Hierarchy of needs emphasises towards the fulfilment of workers needs. Such an example is that Theory X may use a salary cut to motivate employees rather an increase in the salary. On the other hand, Theory Y postulates that people like to work; they are self-directed and they do not have to be threatened to work and they seek more responsibilities. In the framework of Maslows theory, Theory Y presume that , it is the social, esteem, and self-actualisation needs which are the driving forces that motivate employees. Given that traditional Theory X orientation is far more negativistic, Theory Y is rather widely used and accepted nowadays. Hackman and Oldham Hackman and Oldman (1980) put forward their Job Characteristics Theory as a three-stage model, in which a set of core job characteristics impact a number of critical psychological states, which can motivate the workers. The worker must have knowledge of the ultimate results of their work, experience responsibility for the work results and consider the work as important, as something which is generally valuable. As such the job itself must be designed accordingly to promote all the three psychological states. (Hackman and Oldham, 1980, p.81) suggested that the work should include five characteristics skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback, as shown in Figure, where the presence of certain job attribute motivates workers. Figure. The job characteristics model Source: web.njit.edu/~rotter/courses/hrm301/lecturenotes/hrm301-11. The job characteristic model identifies that adding certain elements to the jobs may alter peoples psychological state in a manner that boosts their work effectiveness (Greenberg and Barron, 2000). Thus, there is the need to redesign jobs through job enlargement, by increasing the number and variety of activities performed, while at the same time, redesign the jobs by increasing the employees level of responsibility and control. What can be deduced till now is that, the first theories of motivation have focused on the financial aspect as being the motivator. On the other hand, more recent theories such as Hackman and Oldmans Job Characteristics Model, has laid more emphasis on the content of work as a motivator. Content Theories of Motivation In this section, there are four prominent content theories of work motivation which will be analysed. The first two theories Maslows hierarchy of needs and Alderfers existence-relatedness-growth (ERG). Abraham Maslow is a humanistic psychologist that developed a theory of personality, which is valuable in the field of employee motivation. Then, there is the Herzbergs motivation-hygiene and Mc Clellands needs theory. Maslows Need Hierarchy Theory Maslows (1954) theory of motivation is one of the most well-known motivation theories called the Hierarchy of Needs (fig..). Robins and Coulter (1998) mentioned that Maslow envisages the workers needs in relation to a pyramid whereby people progress up the hierarchy as they successively gratify each level of need. The five basic kinds of needs are: psychological needs, safety needs, social needs, esteem needs, and self-actualisation needs. Thus, it is understood from this theory that managers must attempt to identify individual employee needs and promote satisfaction. If they do so, employees will progress toward self-actualization, permitting the organisation to be all that it can be (Sims 2002). Marchington Wilkinson (1995) argued that money act as a motivating factor for those at the lower level of the hierarchy, since these workers are low income earners. On the other hand, those already earning a higher income and have been able to satisfy their lower level needs can therefore proceed to the high order needs. However, this theory has been criticised for being vague and without ability to predict human behaviour. It also views individual needs as stagnant rather than dynamic. An example is, needs can change unexpectedly when subject to undesirable factors such as the effect of job loss on aesthetic needs. Figure.Applying Maslows Hierarchy on Needs Source: http://www.wiziq.com/tutorial/122744-Organization-Management-models-and-diagrams-for-presentations Alderfers Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory (ERG) This theory of needs for existence, relatedness and growth by Alderfer (1972) is much simpler than the Maslows approach. According to Greenberg and Baron (2003, p.192), the five needs identified by Maslow corresponds with the three needs of Alderfers ERG theory. Alderfer specifies that there exist three main needs but these needs are not necessarily activated in any specific order. In fact, Alderfer claims that any need may be activated at any time (Greenberg and Baron, 2000).However, this theory has a frustration regression element which suggest that if a higher order need is frustrated, an individual will increase his level of desire for a lower level need. Such an example is, an individual is unable to meet the growth need, perhaps due to a restrictive work environment, thus, his desire for rewards such as money is likely to increase. Therefore the above two need theories, namely Maslows need hierarchy and Alderfers ERG theory, do not agree completely. However, they do agree that satisfying human needs is a vital part in motivating employees. Need Theories: A comparison Source: e-learning.mfu.ac.th/mflu/1203141/chapter7.html Herzberg Motivation Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg (1923) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two- factor theory of motivation. He identified hygiene factors which do not motivate but cause dissatisfaction in the employee and the other one are called the motivators which lead to satisfaction, comparable to Maslows higher needs (Jones and Jordan, 1982). Hygiene factors are all extrinsic factors found in the external environment, while motivators are all intrinsic factors which the employees attribute to themselves and to a certain extent, these factors correlate to Maslows esteem needs. According to Mc Kenna (1996), hygiene factors vary from motivators in the sense that a lack of adequate job hygiene will cause dissatisfaction. Therefore, it is important to ensure that the hygiene factors are correct, and the manager should manipulate the motivators by attending to job-content issues, like job enrichment (Johnson and Gill, 1993). Job enrichment entails redesigning jobs to make them more exciting and challe nging by allowing requirements to be made for increased responsibility and creativity. According to Adair (1990), the phrase job satisfaction arose from the work of Herzberg. In identifying a set of motivational factors, Herzberg made a distinction between long-term and temporary motivation levels. The motivators are long-term satisfaction and they are essential to intrinsic motivation (Deci and Ryan, 1985), which are also very similar to the Maslows esteem needs. On the other hand, the hygiene factors contribute to more life dissatisfaction and money cannot buy happiness (Kasser, 2002). They found that the lowest ranked motivator was an increase in salary because money do fulfil the requirement of the hygiene factor, but overtime are poor motivators. Since the hygiene issues are not the source of satisfaction, these issues must be in order to create a conducive atmosphere in which employee satisfaction and motivation are possible. However most practical studies with distinction made by Herzberg, show that salary, recognition and responsibility, for instance, have been seen both as motivators and hygiene factors (Maidani, 1991). Mc Clleland Theory of Needs David Mc Clelland proposed the three-needs theory: affiliation, power, and achievement, which serve as motivators in organisations (Robbins Stuart-Kotze, 1990). The first need is the need for affiliation which is same as to the Maslows social needs. This need gives rise to the desire of friendship; prefer to keep good relationship instead of competitive environment (Robbins and Coulter, 1998). As such, individual with a strong need for affiliation is likely to take up jobs which is characterised by a desire to belong to a particular group, or a concern about interpersonal relationships at work, such as counselling, customer service, and public relation. The second need proposed is the need for power. The need for power is indicated by a persons desire to control and the ability to influence people and their actions. As such, Mc Clleland and Burnham (1976) find that the acquiring and maintaining of power is an essential motivating process in organisations. The third need is the need for achievement, which refers to the individuals desire to success and obtain excellent results. People are highly motivated by challenge and competitive work situation (Stoner, et al. 1995). In view of the last two needs of Mc Cllelands theory, the Maslows influence can be seen as it is similar to the Maslows esteem needs, with power and recognised achievement come self-confidence and prestige. However to study the need for achievement, Herzberg and Atkinson developed the Thematic Apperception Test which determines the individuals score for each of the needs of achievement, affiliation and power. For the high achievers, money is looked upon as a symbol of achievement rather than an intrinsic motivating factor. In this theory, people with a high need for achievement are eager to obtain feedback on their performance and exhibit moderate levels of risk taking (Wood 1992). Financial rewards are not the key motivator and money is a form of feedback and recognition to them. Conclusion of the need theories Table . shows the relationships among Maslows, Alderfers, and Herzbergs theories of motivation. Table Conclusion of Need-Based Approaches Source: http://e-learning.mfu.ac.th/mflu/1203141/chapter7.html. Despite the obvious differences between need theories discussed, there are several points at which the theories intersect. On the other hand, the need-based theories share an innate weakness. They do an adequate job of describing the factors that motivate behaviour, but they tell us very little about the actual processes of motivation (Moorhead Griffin, 1995) Process Theories of Motivation Process theories attempt to identify the relationships between variables which give rise to motivation. According to Mullins (1996), process theories provide a further contribution to our understanding of motivation. They focus on why people choose to behave in a certain manner in order to fulfil their needs and also how they evaluate their satisfaction level after they have attained their goals. Expectancy Theory The expectancy theory was developed by Victor Vroom in 1964 and it has been further developed by Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler in the 1968, where it is believed that there is a direct correlation between performance and outcome and the reward for that outcome is defined. Therefore, this theory is concerned with the internal processes that an individual undergoes in order to decide whether he/she wants to put in additional efforts towards a specific goal (Robbins Stuart-Kotze, 1990; Stueart Moran, 1993; Server Wescott, 1983). Vroom suggests that there should be a link between effort and performance for an individual to be motivated (Droar, 2006, p.  2). According to Vroom, the three factors that should be considered when determining the effort put forth by an individual are: valence, instrumentality, and expectancy (Holdford and Lovelace-Elmore, 2001). The first variable valence, refers to the desire that an individual has to achieve a goal or to fulfill a need. The second one is instrumentality, whereby there is the belief that performance is related to rewards such as bonuses, piece-rate incentive system or sales commission plans. As such, the merit system, which is referred as the pay-for-performance may be carefully implemented. The third element, expectancy refers to the belief that an individual has about the relationship between effort and performance. According to Armstrong Murlis (1994), this theory is the most relevant one to reward practice. However, this theory also recognises that people are motivated by other different things (Robbins Stuart-Kotze, 1990). Therefore, it can be seen that there is no one theory which can explain everyones motivation. According to Marchington Wilkinson (1998), what motivates people depends on their perception of the attractiveness of the goal and its attainability. Figure provides an overview of the Expectancy Theory. Expectancy Theory: An overview Source: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leadhb_2.html#Vroom Equity Theory The Equity theory was developed in 1963 by John Stacy Adams and states that people will be motivated if people are treated fairly and equitably, and they would be demotivated if they are treated unfairly and inequitably. Employees evaluate their own input/output ratios based on their comparison with the input/outcome ratios of other employees (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). That is, they will compare the ratio of what they put in (e.g. experience and effort) and what they get out of the job (e.g. salary and promotion) with what others are getting in a similar job. If an employee notices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and quality of work, then dissatisfaction will occur. As such, the employees will behave in ways to enforce equity (Cheung, 1997). Therefore employees will seek to reduce it, either by increasing performance to output when the perception is that of being over-rewarded or decreasi ng performance when they feel they are being under-rewarded or even leave the organization (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). In light of the equity theory, it can be said that employees should be rewarded based on their performance and hard work, rather than on their seniority, for example. For instance, instead of receiving a bonus at the end of the year, the increase in salary should rather be based upon the employees performance so that employees may feel they are being treated equitably. As such, it is believed that employees contributing more to the organisation , should receive higher rewards. This belief is called the equity norm. Employees are the passive observers and they are aware of what is happening at their workplace. If they feel they are being exploited or treated unfairly, they might take the initiative to go on a strike or retaliate in other ways. On the other hand, when employees are being paid more than what they deserve, and they are actually receiving this higher pay, they tend to lower their work level to normal (Greenberg and Barron, 2000). Goal Theory The Goal theory or the goal-setting theory was initially developed by Latham and Locke (Locke Latham, 1990, 2002). According to Goldstein (1993), goal provides a sense of direction and purpose. Goal setting is simply defined as a specific outcome that an individual is striving to achieve (Alderman, 1999). Seijts et al. (2004), found that people with a specific high learning goal is effective in increasing a persons performance. That is, the more difficult the goal, the higher the level of performance expected. Feedback also help to identify the difference between what an individual has done and what they want to do and thus guide them as to how well they are moving ahead towards their goals. Also, according to Moorhead and Griffin (1995), when employees are given the opportunity to participate in setting their own goal, their efforts in achieving them will be greater when compared to the goals being assigned to them. Therefore the control tend to restrain motivation, while the individuals involvement in their own goal-setting task, creates a more productive environment (Kennish, 1994). In general, Locke and Lathams model of goal setting has been supported by several studies which suggests, it is a valuable approach concerning how the goal-setting process works. Reinforcement Theory Reinforcement theory was proposed by BF Skinner (1975), whereby he states that individuals behaviour is a function of its consequences. This theory emphasises on re-designing the external environment should be made suitable to the individuals and that punishment will actually lead to frustration and de-motivation. This approach explains the role of rewards in greater detail as they cause the behaviour to change or remain the same. Positive reinforcement refers to rewarding a desirable behaviour as this may increase the probability of outstanding behaviour occurring again. Praise and recognition are appropriate examples of positive reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is another way to influence behaviour, but the aim is to prevent an a negative action from being repeated in the future. Such an example may be negative feedback or reprimands. According to Skinner, a third way to influence behaviour is punishment, which decreases the probability of the behaviour from being repeated. Punishment is something unpleasant that an individual tend to avoid, and as a result, employees would be motivated to behave in the right behaviour. The last method of behaviour modification is lack of reinforcement. The idea behind this concept is that, if behaviour is not reinforced, it will decrease and soon be forgotten by the individual (Stueart Moran, 1993). Section 2 Performance Management Introduction According to Gilley and Maycunich (2000), performance management helps organisations maintain and improve performance, encourage greater consistency in performance appraisal and provide high quality feedback. Motivational approaches tend to boost up the workforce in order to attain the likely job performance. (Byham and Moyer, 2005). Referring to above theories which has been discussed above, it can be assumed that some theories do consider ways to increase motivation aiming at improving employees performance which will contribute to organisational goals. A motivated team and hard-working employees is essential to the success of the company. This is because performance will certainly suffer if workers lack motivation, resulting in poor productivity. Furthermore, job satisfaction has an important role in the improved performance of an employee. In other words, high employee job satisfaction implies improved performance of the organisation. Thus, this statement signifies that improvement may be achieved by providing people rewards and the chance to perform (Armstrong, 2003, p. 240). However, according to some experts, people consider work as a less significant aspect due to the fact that the new generation of the highly educated workforce want more prospect for development, autonomy, flexibility and work experiences (Hammett, 1984).They want to contribute fully in the work environment and respond unfavourably to rigid hierarchies. Thus, performance management is declared to be part of human resource management which can make the utmost impact on organisational performance (Philpott Sheppard, 1992). Creating and sustaining a high performance organisation Organisations go into business to create long term performance and values. According to Keith Owen et al. (2001), the ability of an organisation to maintain the delivery of quality products and services is essential to its long-term success. And this ability is a learnable organisational competence. From Performance appraisal to Performance management Performance appraisal and reward systems are based on the supposition that employees performance and motivation can be enhanced by establishing a clear link between efforts and reward through formalised and particular individual targets (Latham et al. 2005). As companies move towards the complex business environment, they will have to develop approaches to tackle various threats, challenges, internal and external problems and explore new opportunities simultaneously. Thus, these companies have to invest in the most vital element the performers. On the other hand, Sims (2002), has relate both performance management and the performance appraisal systems through the HRM systems. According to Sims (2002), performance appraisal is a process by which an employees contribution to the company during a particular period of time is evaluated. Performance appraisal acts both as an evaluation and a development tool. Moreover, it is a legal document which contain , both positive actions as well as deficiency and plans for the future development. However, the main disadvantage of performance appraisal system is that there is no mutually agreed goal since job description and performance appraisal does not correlate, arising the issue of unclear evaluation criterion (Grote and Grote, 2002). As such employees are reluctant to support this system because it fails to consider the human touch and employees job expectation diminishes. The organisations culture and empowerment Nowadays organisational culture has become popular compared to earlier times due to increased competition, globalisation and diversified workforce (Schein, 1992).According to Sammuto and OConnor (1992), culture is a vital factor which contributes to the success or failure of an organisation. Organisational culture is the sharing of values, thoughts and experiences with others Cummings and Worley (2001). As such, the shared culture encourages a certain level of stability among the members of the organisation. Organisational culture basically include the values, beliefs and ideas on what the organisation is all about, how its workforce should behave and how it defines itself in relation to its external environment. On the other hand, Leach, Wall and Jackson (2003) defined empowerment as a motivational state which comprises of having a personal choice over work behaviours and processes. Empowering employees may develop feelings that may help increase work motivation. Thus, workers may develop a can do attitude that reflects a feeling of confidence within themselves (Geller, 2001). However, empowerment is often misinterpreted and feared by traditional managers, because they may lose control and respect by sharing their power and authority (Kahnweiler, 1991). Pay and Motivation Pay is an important factor which encourages motivation, as individuals utilise it to satisfy their needs and wants. It also acts as a recompense for employees diligence and commitment. According to Cooke (1999) and Fisher (2005), money is the key motivator for employees. This statement concurs with that of Crystal (1970) who further asserted that money can be a motivating factor, but little money may have no effect. The use of monetary or other financial incentives in the classic work performance paradigm is based on the reinforcement theory. Performance-based pay is a compensation paid which varies with the individual, team or organisational performance, such as the merit pay, team incentives and profit sharing (Milkovich Newman, 2002). However, studies have shown that pay does not seem to boost productivity levels in the long term and money does not improve performance (Whitley, 2002).Instead, this can deteriorate employees attitude in which they work merely in the interest of high pay. Therefore, it can be said that pay is not the only main reinforcement as other non-financial factors such as rewards, social recognition and performance feedbacks are also found to be positive motivational factors (Smith Rupp, 2003). The job itself and motivation According to Redmond (2010), a well designed job is one which is appealing to the person performing the task, that is, it should be interesting, motivating and meaningful. Well designed task will obviously lead to a higher employee satisfaction which encourages the workforce to be more productive and help to meet business goals (Schermerhorn et al, 2005). Conversely, poorly designed jobs that lack adequate attention to the needs of the workers are known as the arbitrary groupings of activities (Campion Thayer, 1987, p. 78). Thus, in order to motivate employees, it is important to implement a flexible task system to provide job satisfaction (Redmond, 2010, p.2). Nevertheless, there are two major theories which have considered this approach to motivation. Firstly, the Herzberg theory, which has addressed to the design of individual jobs as a two-factor theory, on the basis that motivation, arises from the nature of the job itself, and not from the job situation or external rewards (Garg Rastogi, 2006). Secondly, Hackman and Oldman (1976) come up with the job characteristics model, which main focus was on the content and nature of jobs. Training and motivation Losyk (1997) considers training as a key motivator. Training is a way to learn new skill and behaviour and employees look upon training as a strong element of their career development as it makes them more marketable (Niemiec, 2000). The expectancy theory presents a framework for assessing, interpreting and evaluating employees behaviour in learning, decision-making, formation and motivation (Chen Lou, 2002). According to McCloy Wise (2002), learning is a vital factor which helps in contributing to both individuals and organisational performance.

Against Schools Essay -- Analysis, John Gatto

The Quality of a child’s education often either limits or opens up a world of opportunities. Those who study the purpose of public education and the way it is distributed throughout society can often identify clear correlations between social class and the type of education a student receives. It is generally known by society that wealthy families obtain the best opportunities money can buy. Education is a tool of intellectual and economical empowerment and since the quality of education is strongly influenced by social class, a smaller portion of the American population obtains the opportunities acquired from a top notch education. Many people believe that educational inequalities are perpetuated from the interests of specific classes, but some researchers like John Gatto believe that there are even stronger social forces in play. In the essay â€Å"Against Schools† the author John Gatto presents three arguments: (1) that are educational system is flawed, (2) that the American educational system is purposely designed to create a massive working class that is easy to manipulate, and (3) alternative teaching methods should be applied to teach children to think for themselves. In this essay I will be summarizing and relating each of these arguments to other educational essays. Also, I will be discussing the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s argument. In John Gatto’s essay â€Å"Against Schools† he states from experience as a school teacher that are current educational system is at fault (148). He claims that classrooms are often filled with boredom manufactured by repetitive class work and unenthusiastic teachings. Students are not actively engaged and challenged by their work and more often than not they have either already covered t... ... people are more advantaged than others and will receive a top notch education, while others will receive a mediocre education that will prepare them less for college and more for a working class job. There most likely is a connection between social class and the educational opportunities presented to students, but it is also possible that other social forces are at play which determines the quality of a student’s education. In Gatto’s essay it was argued that are educational system is designed to perpetuate faults in order to create a manageable society. He supports his argument with various strong statements which makes his logic convincing, but he falls short when backing the credibility of his claims. The strengths of his essay prove to also be its weakness, which results in a piece of literature that only succeeds in arousing emotional reactions from readers.

Book Report :: essays research papers

A tiny town in Connecticut. Is this setting of Among Friends by Caroline B. Cooney. The time of year is from the beginning of the school year, to the end of the school year.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main characters in this book are Jennie, Paul, Emily, Hillary, Jared, and Ansley. All the main characters are juniors in high school. Jennie is part of the awesome threesome. She always gets good grades on tests even if she doesn’t study. People envy her for that. Paul is also know as Paul Classified because no one knows anything about him, they don’t even know his middle name. Jennie likes Paul and she flirts with him all the time. Emily and Hillary are part of the awesome threesome too. Jared and Ansley are boyfriend and girlfriend. They both dislike Jennie because she is so popular and intelligent.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The conflict in this book is man vs. himself. Jennie has to decide whether she wants to stay part of the awesome threesome, or make a state record by winning the prize for the smartest kid in the state 2 years in a row like her parents want her to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This book starts out by the awesome threesome, Emily (also known as Em), Hillary, and Jennie skipping through the hallway with their arms linked tightly together. They have been best friends ever since they could remember. During the summer, Em and Hill went to Colorado to ski. Usually Jennie goes to, but this year she didn’t. Em and Hill could feel Jennie slipping away from the awesome threesome. All Jennie did was flirt with Paul Smith. Jennie got chosen to represent the school in a test called Star Student. It is a test to see how smart you are. The one, who wins, will get ten thousand dollars and a medal. Jennie is so smart and perfect that Hillary and Em cant take it anymore and they start being very cruel to her. They ignore her and they do stuff without her. She gets very upset and she says the notebook she writes in is her only friend. She thinks no one likes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While she is at the star student contest, during the first test she runs out of the room. She never came back. People are very worried about her. Some people are saying it’s because her parents pushed her too much, or because she was depressed, and some say she got murdered.

Death be not Proud and Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night :: Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night

Death is an aspect of life that everyone becomes acquainted with sooner or later.   From my own experiences I am more familiar with death than I could ever want to be.   Poetry is something that is very difficult for me to follow, but when it deals with concept that I am familiar with, then I am able to associate with the soul of the writer.   Two poems that deal with the concept of death that I actually enjoyed reading and will compare to each other are "Death be not proud" by Dylan Thomas and "Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night" by Dylan Thomas.   Firstly, in "Death be not proud," Donne tells Death that it is not anything special.   That Death is a low being that deals with the pitiful aspects of life: war, disease, and murder.   Donne says that Death is nothing more than an aspect of life, just an event of the moment, "one short sleep past, we wake eternally."   Donne goes on to explain that we all will go through this door while on the way to another existence.   In comparison, "Do Not Go Gentle Into That Good Night" by Thomas is a battle cry against death.   To fight against it until the last breath of life is gone.   That to give up life is the coward's way.   To his father, who is dying from a protracted illness, Dylan says to show his love, that it is all right to cry even though he has never seen his father show the weakness of crying, just so long as he continues to fight against the coming end.   In both poems, the writers are against Death; however Donne writes of Death as a weak entity that has no real power, because after we die, we will never have to face the worry of Death.   Thomas, however, writes as if he doesn't believe in any kind of hereafter.   An example of this is the repeated cry "Rage, rage against the dying of the light."   These are two very different beliefs for an ineludible fact of life.   Death is something that I have faced and will eventually succumb to;

Understand how to plan work and be accountable to others

1.1 – Outline guidelines, procedures codes of practice relevant to personal work – The procedures, guidelines and codes of practice relevant to work are: Procedures: Reporting of accidents at work, fire drills, and reporting absence from work as well as first aid procedures. Codes of practice: Good customer service, quality assurance, freedom of information and privacy of personal data. Guidelines: How to answer the phone, dress code, how to handle email, how to store and retrieve information, how to use office equipment and ensure any actions reduce risk to health and safety Guidelines, procedures and codes of practice that relate to personal work are very important as each of them gives information on how to perform the job effectively and safely. Failing to follow these could potentially hurt someone or even more cause problems for the company.1.2 – Explain the purpose of planning work, and being accountable to others for own work – Planning work can be more efficient. Setting priorities in order to do the most important things first is a good way to keep on top of deadlines. If we are accountable to others for our own work then each step can be examined to see that your work is up to standard. It also gives more responsibility for the work being done as it shows the person setting it trusts you with the work.1.3 – Explain the purpose and benefits of agreeing realistic targets for work – The purpose for agreeing realistic targets for work is to keep everyone on task and focused on what work has been set, this way everyone can work more effectively and reach targets instead of struggling. The benefits of this includes being fast and reliable with completing the tasks at hand.1.4 – Explain how to agree realistic targets  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ The targets being agreed to must be realistic so that the person doing the job has a good chance of completing them, this will allow the person to work without stress. However if the targets are set too high then the person trying to complete the job will feel under pressure and if the targets are too low then it will eventually get boring and it wouldn’t help you develop  anything out of it.1.5 – Describe ways of planning work to meet agreed deadlines – A good way to meet any agreed deadlines would be to make a list of work that needs to be done with any required dates for completion and prioritise the order is most important. It’s also a good idea to check that you have all the information and resources you need to complete the tasks.1.6 – Explain the purpose of keeping other people informed about progress – It’s important to keep other people informed about the progress of work being done because if there is any problem to meet my deadlines then then you can turn to someone for advice and help to reprioritise the work. As well it is important because the person the work is for can miss their deadlines if itâ €™s not completed on time.1.7 – Explain the purpose and benefits of letting other people know work plans need to be changed – The purpose of letting other people know work plans need to be changed is because they need to know about changes because it may affect their other work and it allows them to make alternate arrangements for the work to be done if necessary.1.8 – Describe types of problems that may occur during work – The types of problem that can occur during work are:  · Equipment breaking.  · Interruptions; such as colleagues asking things.  · Not being kept informed or provided with the information needed to complete the job.  · Absence of other colleagues.1.9 – Describe ways of seeking assistance with getting help to resolve problems – A way to get assistance with resolving any problems could be to report them to either a colleague/manager to see if they have any advice on how it can be solved as they might have more e xperience. However if nobody could help you, you can also use the company’s website or internal intranet site to see if there is any guidance on there to solving any problem you may have.1.10 – Explain the purpose and benefits of recognising and learning from mistakes – The purpose of recognising and learning from mistakes it to make sure you don’t make them again, people will recognise the mistake and then will be in a position to try and correct it. Other people could also help to ensure that the same mistake isn’t made again by providing extra support. Also it is a lesson for the future, which can be taken away to  other places.

Cyberchondria: A New Media Syndrome Essay

Have you ever tried to find a treatment for a really bad flu on Google? How about a persistent pimple that won’t go away? Has your throat hurt really badly that you decided to search for instant relief through the internet? Then you’re one of the millions who self-diagnose. Trying to name what kind of medical problem one has by using books, medical dictionaries, past personal or non personal experiences, the internet, or even software applications, is called self-diagnosis. With the wealth of information from the information superhighway, anyone of any age can readily access health related information through the new media. Innovative handy digital devices make information access as convenient as breathing. Data is a finger tap away. Although there are no current statistics as to the number of Filipino internet users who self-diagnose, this issue is certainly a reality. In fact, as a result of the said issue, a new condition has emerged — Cyberchondria. What is Cyberchondria? According to Wikipedia, Cyberchondria is the result of internet research on health related issues. It refers to the baseless increase of a person’s anxiety because of the online medical information he or she has gathered. The term is coined from the prefix â€Å"cyber† which pertains to anything of computers, information systems, virtual reality and the Internet (Encarta, 2009), and the psychological condition called hypochondria. People with hypochondria are preoccupied with their health and claim to feel real symptoms. They believe that they have a serious illness but upon the doctor’s examination, there is no objective evidence of the illness they claim to have. The British Medical Journal publication â€Å"Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry† in 2003 said that the word cyberchondria was first used in a British newspaper to refer to the use of the internet health websites to add to anxiety about health. Since the term hypochondria carries with it a rather offensive connotation, research studies have clarified that because the said word means â€Å"excessive concern about health†, cyberchondria is simply â€Å"online concern about health†. Cyberchondria and Search Engines Microsoft, a leading multinational computer industry that offers software, video game products, and online service conducted a comprehensive research in 2008 on cyberchondria and search engines like Google and Yahoo. Researchers Ryen White and Eric Horvitz concluded that if someone who does not have proper training and education in medicine searches the web about a symptom he or she has, they will most probably have increased anxiety. Aside from the escalation of worry, another result is the waste of time and money because of unnecessary doctor visits. The study also revealed that people who find medical information about their symptom online neglect to study all other options but rather focus on the first few results of the search. Among the 500 respondents that they questioned, nine out of ten admit that after researching on a minor symptom online, they were led to research about a much worse medical illness. They also found out that most users that self-diagnose online thought that the search results that appear are ranked according to the probability of them having that disease. This is actually not the real case since search engines rank search results according to computerized mathematic procedures called algorithms. Results are ranked according to how many times the searched word is found on the web page, the number of mouse clicks a web page receives and the number of other website links on the page. What causes Cyberchondria? Researchers and doctors alike have come up with reasons why online users have the tendency to develop cyberchondria. 1. Dr. Stephanie Bown, director of policy and communication of the Medical Protection Society, the leading provider of comprehensive professional insurance for doctors, dentists and health practitioners worldwide, said that the common people may not be able to correctly understand and interpret difficult medical information and terminology (GP Online, 2008). 2. Dr. Bown further said that web information on a certain minor symptom is so varied and so innumerable that they are conflicting. This causes confusion to the common person. 3. Microsoft researchers found out that online users do not have an accurate understanding of how search engines work. 4. Online users do not know that correct diagnosis of a certain condition requires so many considerations like age, family, and lifestyle. Dr. Google does not take up these factors into consideration. 5. For those who already suffer from anxiety, it is already a fact that they think worst of any circumstance. The unfiltered medical information will give anxious people the chance to know the worst case scenario about a minor symptom, which they will certainly brood over about. How to Avoid Cyberchondria 1. Dr. Stewart Segal, an American Family Physician who has dealt with patients having cyberchondria explains that online users need to understand the difference between medical â€Å"possibility and probability†. Possibility is always a certain likelihood, but medical probability is otherwise. Important health factors need to be considered very well before an illness could be found probable for a person. Therefore, anything is possible on the Internet, but it is not probable. 2. Understand how New Media marketing works. Information is packaged as a commodity online in order to attract more readers. Your online diagnosis may sound very real, but read any information with discernment. 3. Look for credible health websites. Go for the reliable sites that have bona fide doctors and health practitioners as contributors. There are now medical online clinics where doctors can be contacted through online communication anytime of the day, such as WebMD. In our country however, online clinics are not yet available, except for a few practitioners who offer help from their personal web pages. Then again, do not let the information you get from online symptom checkers worry you. Think of possibility and probability. 4. Do not self-treat based on information from the internet, especially the use of medications. Your incorrect treatment may lead to other medical concerns, which will make things, including anxiety worse. Buying drugs online isn’t very reliable, too. Websites may offer medication along with your diagnosis. Do not fall for it, this is still marketing strategy. Also there may be lapses as to how we understand terminologies since we are not medically trained. Misunderstandings of dosages and other pertinent medical information is very dangerous. 5. Do not stick to any single diagnosis, which goes both for the public and physicians alike. This leads to errors. Doctors always study more than one diagnosis and they usually begin considering the least serious. Their initial findings are subject to tests and conclusive verifications before the final diagnosis is reached. 6. If you have the information you need, consult your doctor with an open mind. Trust your physician that he or she can come up with a way better diagnosis than Dr. Google or Yahoo. 7. Do not worry yourself to death. Stress from anxiety can aggravate little symptoms that we feel. The best way to take care of our health is to live healthy and avoid worry. Remember that online medical health information can work two ways: for you or against you. How we handle what we find out online will determine this. Knowledge may be very helpful, but it can also be very crippling. You choose. Facebook Testimonials on â€Å"Have you tried online self-diagnosis?† â€Å" I wouldn’t recommend consulting the internet. tendency is you will get more anxious. my daughter has G6PD deficiency and when i looked it up the internet all i can say is poor baby but when her pedia explained it to us it is just a simple case and what we really need to avoid is feeding her soy. well her world won’t end if she can’t taste taho 😉 and my boy then had umbilical granuloma which is quite nerve wracking for me thinking it will be cauterized or operated when all the pediatric surgeon did was only tie it with a suture and after 1 week it is as if nothing happened†¦[sic]† -Kim Gumban Tinedo, 31 â€Å"Yes i did! It helped me in so many ways when I was pregnant. Since it was difficult for us to get an obstetrician who can speak English here in Dalian,China, I relied on the internet about what’s happening with me and my baby. There was one instance when we went to Beijing for general check-up and we were informed on the phone a week later that I will have a trisomy 21 baby and was advised to go for amniocentesis. We were alarmed when we heard about their findings but after several researches on the internet we didn’t submit to their suggestion but instead we relied on what we’ve researched and waited for my due date. Perhaps I just happened to get a reliable site which was perfectly right to what I’m looking for. I even get a weekly update on what to do and it did serve as my guide without consulting the OB anymore. And now everything’s fine with me and the baby is normal! Thanks to the internet! [sic]† – PS Charity Esmaya Alibo gha, 32 â€Å"Yes†¦ just last week, the result of our annual PE for employees came out. my result showed a lot of recommendations due to some health risks. And one of them was my high albumin result( 2+) †¦ i was alarmed. i googled it and found out that it can lead to serious renal problems if it progresses. I was anxious the whole day†¦[sic]† – Ryan Mark Pelaez, 32 http://www.gponline.com/News/article/934329/MPS-urges-caution-internet-self-diagnosis/ http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm http://health.howstuffworks.com/mental-health/mental-disorders/cyberchondria1.htm http://livewellthy.org/2011/04/10/cyberchondia.aspx http://webMD.com http:// wikepedia.com